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A concrete example of investigating a non-causal statistical relationship is asking whether a correlation exists between verbal intelligence and mathematical intelligence. This research question necessitates a non-experimental approach because it seeks only to measure and determine if two naturally occurring variables are statistically associated, without attempting to manipulate an independent variable or establish that one form of intelligence causes changes in the other.

Example of Non-Causal Statistical Relationship: Verbal and Mathematical Intelligence

A researcher wants to determine whether scores on a verbal intelligence test are statistically associated with scores on a mathematical intelligence test, without manipulating either variable. Because the researcher is measuring naturally occurring variables rather than establishing causation, this research question calls for a ____ approach.

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