In the discussion section of an APA-style report, researchers must critically evaluate and address the study's limitations, such as potential problems with internal or external validity, ineffective manipulations, or unreliable measures. Rather than listing every possible routine issue—as most readers assume general limitations exist—authors should focus on two or three specific limitations that most likely influenced the results. The narrative should explain how these factors might have affected the data and suggest methodological strategies to deal with them in future studies.

Addressing Limitations in APA Reports

A key element of the APA discussion section is providing suggestions for future research. Rather than simply generating a list of new, disjointed questions, this component focuses on discussing two or three of the most important unresolved issues raised by the current study. Researchers should identify and clarify each new question, propose potential alternative theoretical answers, and suggest specific methodological approaches that future studies could use to investigate them.

Suggestions for Future Research in APA Reports

A critical component of an APA-style Discussion section involves addressing the theoretical implications of the study's findings. Researchers must evaluate whether their results support existing theories or, conversely, outline alternative explanations if the data contradict established models. While a definitive new theory is not strictly required, researchers must thoughtfully explore potential theoretical mechanisms that could explain their outcomes.

Reporting Theoretical Implications in APA Discussions

What is the primary purpose of the discussion section in an APA-style research report?

The discussion is the final major narrative section of an APA-style research report. Its purpose is to interpret the findings and situate them within the broader literature. A comprehensive discussion typically includes a summary of the research that directly answers the main question, an exploration of theoretical implications (how the results align with or challenge existing theories), practical implications for real-world applications, an acknowledgment of the study's limitations, and targeted suggestions for future research. It often concludes by returning to the original problem introduced in the report's opening paragraph.

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The American Psychological Association (APA) style is a specific writing and formatting standard that researchers typically must follow when preparing a manuscript for publication in a psychology journal. Students in psychology courses are expected to learn the major elements of this rigorous style.

APA Style

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KPU Research Methods in Psychology - 4th American Edition

The primary objective of APA style is to facilitate scientific communication by promoting clarity of expression and standardizing the structure of research articles and book chapters. This consistency makes it easier for authors to organize their findings and for readers to comprehend the research, as the information is presented in a familiar and expected format.

Purpose of APA Style

A key aspect of effective writing is selecting a style that matches the specific task and field. For example, while a literary analysis would use Modern Language Association (MLA) style and a newspaper article would use Associated Press (AP) style, an empirical research report in psychology requires APA style.

Context-Appropriate Writing Styles

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the official guidebook that documents the APA style guidelines. Originating in 1929 as a brief journal article providing basic standards for manuscript preparation, it has since expanded into a comprehensive book that dictates the conventions for writing and publishing in psychology.

American Psychological Association (APA) Publication Manual

The results section of an APA-style research report is where the main findings of the study, including the outcomes of statistical analyses, are formally presented. While this section summarizes the data to answer the research questions, it does not include the raw data—such as individual participants' specific responses or scores. However, researchers are ethically expected to preserve their raw data and make them available to other researchers upon request, often by sharing them in open online repositories.

APA Results Section

APA Discussion Section

The references section in an APA-style manuscript begins on a new page, featuring the heading "References" centered at the top. It provides a comprehensive, double-spaced list of all sources cited within the text. Entries are ordered alphabetically by the last name of the first author. If multiple sources share the same first author, they are alphabetized by the second author's last name, and if all authors are identical, the sources are listed chronologically by their year of publication.

APA References Section Layout

An appendix in an APA-style report is utilized to present supplemental material that would otherwise interrupt the narrative flow if placed within the major sections of the manuscript. Common examples include lists of stimulus words, full questionnaire items, or detailed descriptions of unusual statistical analyses. Appendices are placed after the references section, with each appendix beginning on a new page. A single appendix is centered with the heading "Appendix," while multiple appendices are labeled sequentially with letters (e.g., "Appendix A," "Appendix B") based on the order they are first mentioned in the text.

APA Appendices

In an APA-style manuscript, tables and figures are used to efficiently present results, display graphs, or illustrate procedures. They are placed at the very end of the document, coming after the references and any appendices. Each individual table and figure must appear on its own separate page, rather than being embedded directly within the text paragraphs.

Placement of Tables and Figures in APA Reports

An APA-style method section can be structured using different subheading organizations depending on the complexity of the study. In a "simple method" organization, researchers use two subheadings: "Participants" and "Design and procedure." A "typical method" breaks the latter apart, resulting in three subheadings: "Participants," "Design," and "Procedure." For studies requiring specific stimuli or specialized apparatuses, a "complex method" uses four subheadings: "Participants," "Materials," "Design," and "Procedure."

Organizing APA Method Section Subheadings

Final manuscripts are documents prepared in their ultimate form with no intention of being submitted to a professional journal for publication. Common examples include student papers, theses, and dissertations. Because these documents are not bound by the strict submission guidelines of journals, their formatting often deviates from rigid APA style to improve readability. For instance, authors might embed tables and figures directly within the text near the relevant discussion, rather than placing them at the end of the document. However, students should always consult their instructors or institutional guidelines for specific formatting rules, as some courses may still require papers to be formatted as if they were being submitted for publication.

Final Manuscripts

A final manuscript is a document prepared by an author in its completed form without the intention of submitting it for publication in a professional journal. Examples include student papers, theses, and dissertations. These manuscripts may slightly deviate from strict APA formatting to improve readability, such as embedding figures and tables within the text near their discussion rather than at the end. However, in a research methods course, student papers are usually required to strictly adhere to publication formatting guidelines as though they were manuscripts being submitted for publication.

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