- Racial differences is not the single major factor affecting educational achievement levels
- There is a disparity gap in achievement among the same Black race

Background on the Educational Achievement differences Between African Heritage students

- Involuntary immigrants: who experienced secondary cultural differences and whose ancestors came to the USA in 1619 as slaves
- Voluntary immigrants: who have not experienced the history of racism and oppression

University of Connecticut

Provides an outline of the origins of educational achievement differences between African heritage students
- (a) historical-racial arguments
- (b) linked to Blacks' voluntary versus involuntary migration to the USA

Ogbu(2003) found that the academic achievement differences between African heritage students were linked with racism and oppression, which involuntary immigrants have experienced but voluntary immigrants not. 

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