- Racial differences is not the single major factor affecting educational achievement levels
- There is a disparity gap in achievement among the same Black race

Background on the Educational Achievement differences Between African Heritage students

In the context of educational achievement differences among African heritage students, there is a distinction between two immigrant groups:
- **Involuntary immigrants:** Individuals whose ancestors were brought to the USA as slaves (e.g., in 1619). This group has experienced secondary cultural differences and a history of racism and oppression.
- **Voluntary immigrants:** Individuals who migrated to the USA by choice and have not experienced the same history of racism and oppression.

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Provides an outline of the origins of educational achievement differences between African heritage students
- (a) historical-racial arguments
- (b) linked to Blacks' voluntary versus involuntary migration to the USA

Ogbu(2003) found that the academic achievement differences between African heritage students were linked with racism and oppression, which involuntary immigrants have experienced but voluntary immigrants not. 

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