In a study using mobile smartphone location data to track mobility in New York City, United States, it was found that individuals living in wealthier boroughs (like Manhattan) and higher-income census tracts were more likely to leave the city to shelter in place elsewhere in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. 

When analyzing the relationship between residual case counts and census tract, researchers controlled for mobility factors and found that some of the disparate rates between racial and income groups were explained. 

Spatial Inequities in Mobility due to COVID-19 Producing Racial & Income Disparities

This was a cross-sectional study of NYC pregnant residents delivering babies at New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center or Allen Hospital after implementation of universal SARS-CoV-2 nasopharyngeal quantitative RT-PCR testing at the time of admission to the labor and delivery unit from March 22 through April 21, 2020. The US Census Bureau’s American Community Survey was used to link the participants to demographic, socioeconomic, and housing information.

SARS-CoV-2 transmission among pregnant women in New York City was associated with neighborhood- and building-level markers of large household membership, household crowding, and low socioeconomic status.

Associations Between Built Environment, Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status, and SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Pregnant Women in New York City

- As of May 19, 2020, the COVID-19 mortality rate for Black Americans is 2.4 times as high as for White Americans and 2.2 times as high for Asian and Latino Americans. 

Disparities in COVID-19 by Race

The definition of an “essential worker” was established as someone society requires to continue with their job duties as normal; however, the workers are often not compensated for their additional risks of contracting COVID-19. This study estimates the proportion of essential workers and discusses their economic vulnerabilities through identifying risk factors. 

48% of essential workers were found to live with at least one of the three risks and 13% were categorized as living in high-risk households.

Economic Vulnerability of Households With Essential Workers

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

The spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus has produced or highlighted disparate outcomes of different types between population groups all over the world. Health disparities can highlight inequitable access, treatment, etc. within a country or state and often indicate the need for public health intervention.

Disparate COVID-19 Outcomes

- Low-income population
- Non-Hispanic Black population
- Hispanic/Latino population
- Low SES population
- Essential workers
- Pregnant Women

Population Groups Affected by Disparate COVID-19 Outcomes

Categories of COVID-19 Outcomes with Disparate Data

- APM Research Lab
- NYU Working Papers
- Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA)
- Annals of Epidemiology
- The New England Journal of Medicine
- Frontiers in Public Health

References for Disparate COVID-19 Outcomes Organized by Journal/Publisher

Social determinants of health (SDOH) are social and economic factors that influence health outcomes. These factors play a significant role in the wide health disparities observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. The social determinants of health are categorized into five crucial determinants:

- Health and health care
- Social and community context
- Neighborhood and built environment
- Education
- Economic stability

These five determinants are interrelated and can be considered as a cycle of events, where a determinant can be a cause or effect of another determinant. 

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