In his social-cultural model, Hofstede described masculinity and femininity as characteristic traits of societies. On the national level, these traits denote the dominant gender role patterns in the vast majority of both traditional and modern societies. In particular, they describe the patterns of male dominance and female nurtures. 

Hofstede's Feminine and Masculine societies 

•Gender stereotypes converged in collectivist nations

•Gender stereotypes diverged in individualistic nations

Gender Stereotypes found in Collectivist and Individualistic Nations


Wolf et. al argue that core cultural values moderate gender stereotypes, particularly that stereotypes of men align more closely with this values than those of women. Essentially, key values in a particular culture are more often ascribed to men when compared to cultures that don't share the same values. Thus, stereotypes for men and women vary across cultures in being culturally mediated rather than universal. 

Catholic University of America

Gender can be defined as socially constructed characteristics of women, men, people outside the expected binary. Some examples being norms, roles and relationships among and between groups of women and men.



Gender is a nonexplanitory measure, meaning gender can not be counted as the cause of a difference in population statistics. Learned behaviors or differences in physicality, among other things, can be counted as explanitory information.

Gender

Cuddy, A. J. C., Wolf, E. B., Glick, P., Crotty, S., Chong, J., & Norton, M. I. (2015). Men as cultural ideals: Cultural values moderate gender stereotype content. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(4), 622–635. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000027


Men as Cultural Ideals: Cultural Values Moderate Gender Stereotype Content

The social construction of gender refers to how meanings of gender are created through social interactions and norms. 
- Gender is not innate and is subject to change:
 - Pink used to be a "boy" color and blue was a "girl" color; now pink is considered a "girl" color and blue a "boy" color
 - What is considered gender appropriate is determined collectively
 
Candace West and Don Zimmerman developed this idea that we "do" gender, instead of it being something that we are. They claim this by saying that we "do" gender knowing that we will be judged by others and held accountable for our gender performances. 

The Social Construction of Gender

This refers to the way that different social relations are linked together, examples of these types of social relations are race, gender, class, ability, sexuality, geography, etc. 
- Femininity intersects with ethnicity, religion and nationality:
- Filipino immigrants tend to think of American girls as uncaring and promiscuous, while holding the belief that Filipina girls were sexually modest and dedicated to their families
- This shows that girls are expected to maintain both gender norms and ethnocultural norms

Due to the connection between social relations one cannot look at something like gender and ignore race or ethnicity. 

Intersectional Perspective on Gender

- Institutional Inequality
- Gender and Violence

Gender Inequality

Much of the research has been conducted on binary gender identifying participants. The data has problems with inconsistent results, but it appears that men have greater risk for procrastinating in academic life. 

- men are more likely than women to procrastinate
- women show higher levels of academic performance, correlated with less procrastination
- men's procrastination adversely impacts their performance and satisfaction

Gender differences with procrastination

Gender studies is an interdisciplinary field that explores how all gender identities are developed and how they affect people’s experiences in society.

Gender Studies

Through Vipassana Meditation females, especially non-buddhists, reported experiencing reactions to gender discrimination as well as  increased femininity, despite VM being a non-gendered practice.

Vipassana Meditation and Gender

Men and women are at differential risk for mental illnesses. Different forms of response/adaptation could predispose men and women to different illnesses and health problems, such as psychophysiological differences between men and women in context of stress




Gender, Stress, and Health

Individuals who experience Gender Dysphoria and feel that their gender identity is incongruent with their sex assigned at birth experience psychological distress due deviation from the societal norm, and Compassion-based Art Therapy combined with mindfulness can help build self-compassion and greater resilience

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