Nucleotide function

1. Precursors for nucleic acid synthesis: DNA, RNA

2. ATP is the prime energy source for biologic processes, GTP is sometimes used
Molecular motors, active transport of solutes across membranes

3. Nucleotides can activate biomolecules for synthetic reactions: 
 - UTP activating glucose, CTP activating alcohol head groups
 - ATP activation in several reactions

4. Nucleotides and derivatives are important parts of many second messenger systems (Cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP )

5. ATP is a source of phosphate for kinase reactions

Seen in regulation
Glycogen synthesis and degradation
Glycolysis


Nucleotides

- Lagging Strand
- Leading Strand
- Okazaki Fragment
- Replication Fork
- Replication Bubble

Key Components of DNA Replication

• DNA is the hereditary material of the cell  
• It is mostly formed in antiparallel DNA strands in a double helix with a 5' and 3' end. 

• DNA contains major and minor grooves. 

• DNA is formed from hydrogen bonds between the base pairs adenine and thymine and cytosine and guanine bases, respectively.

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Nucleic acids are macromolecules that are composed of subunits called nucleotides.  They are responsible for the transfer of genetic information from an organism's genome and turning it into proteins.  Nucleic acids exist in two forms:

- deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- ribonucleicacid (RNA)

Nucleic acids are built using nitrogen, and thus need a nitrogen source to undergo nitrogen fixation

Nucleic Acids

The genetic code refers to mRNA transcripts translated into amino acids to make proteins. This occurs due to the nucleotide triplets called codons that code for amino acids.

The Genetic Code

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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Nomenclature

- Ultimate source: atmospheric nitrogen gas -> to be used, it must be split to make ammonium
- Nitrogen fixation: split N2 and reduce it to NH4+
- Mostly newly-fixed nitrogen (60%) is from archaea and bacteria
- Other sources: 15% from lightning, UV, 25% from industry
- Plants take in nitrites and nitrates and reduce them with electrons from reduced cofactors to make ammonium for synthetic reactions
- Higher organisms (like humans) ingest nitrogen-containing compounds


Nitrogen Sources

- Some bacteria and archaea are diazotrophic (nitrogen-fixing) splitting gaseous, atmospheric nitrogen and reducing it to ammonia
- The triple nitrogen bond is difficult to break because of the instability of highly reactive, high-energy intermediates in the pathway
- After intermediates are created, the reaction is downhill in terms of energy, making it easy, but getting there can be difficult
- The reactions require special catalysts (enzymes) not found in higher organisms
- Energetically expensive process
- Requires 16 ATP per mole of N2 split and reduced
- Split N2 - reduce to NH3
- N2 + 10H+ + 8e- -> 2 NH3+ + H2
Ferredoxin, Nitrogenase
Two parts - reductase and nitrogenase


Nitrogen Fixation occurs in diazotrophic organisms

RNA is involved in protein synthesis and regulation. It also has catalytic properties.
RNA is typically found in the single stranded form.
RNA is formed from hydrogen bonds between the base pairs adenine and uracil and cytosine and guanine bases, respectively.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

The number of codons possible is more than the number of amino acids. This means there is redundancy in the genetic code for multiple codons to translate for one amino acid. In most cases, the first two codons dictate the amino acid while the third position is the wobble position is less important for the amino acid that is incorporated.

Redundancy in the Genetic Code

Proteins are macromolecules that are composed of subunits called amino acids When the number of amino acids linked together becomes very large, or when multiple polypeptides are used as building subunits,

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