Disorientation can occur in linear and non-linear text. When the level of disorientation is low, the learner does not need to plan navigation which causes little to no ECL.

Johns Hopkins University

Definition of Disorientation: Disorientation is a consequence of unstructured text. Examples may be missing paragraphs, missing headings, complex sentence structures, complex connections in hypertext. 


Disorientation and Cognitive Load

Zumbach, J., & Mohraz, M. (2008). Cognitive load in hypermedia reading comprehension: Influence of text type and linearity. Computers in human behavior, 24(3), 875-887.

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