A cast of the cranial cavity of a fossil skull that can point to the general size and shape of its brain, but does not offer specific details of it. 

Villanova University

Comparisons between modern and ancient species can reveal important information about brain evolution (i.e., general trends of increasing brain size amongst vertebrates over time), including how it may relate to behavior. 

• Endocasts 
• Studying Present-Day Species 

Methods of Measuring Brain Evolution 

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

Endocasts

Some modern species' brains still maintain anatomical similarities to those of their ancestors, allowing for more a thorough analysis of these features,  especially of internal structures (i.e., nuclei, fiber tracts, connections between neurons). 

Studying Present-Day Species

This diagram of the main classes of vertebrates represents the different paths of evolution taking place simultaneously and separately. 

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