Eric Kandel is a modern psychologist who has made significant progress in locating the physical traces of memory. He has spent decades studying the synapse and its critical role in controlling the flow of information through the neural circuits that are needed to store memories.

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There have been a number of psychologists who have contributed to the study of memory. These include:
- Karl Lashley
- Hermann Ebbinghaus 

Important Figures in Memory Research

An engram is the theoretical physical trace or representation of a memory within the brain. Early researchers like Karl Lashley did not find evidence of the engram, which led him to formulate the equipotentiality hypothesis. However, modern psychologists are making progress in locating these physical memory traces, particularly by investigating the role of synapses in neural circuits.

Engram

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Karl Lashley was a psychologist who, about a century ago, investigated the physical basis of memory. His research methodology involved creating lesions, or intentional damage, in the cerebral cortex of animals like rats and monkeys. This was part of his pioneering search for the engram, the physical trace of a memory, which ultimately led to his formulation of the equipotentiality hypothesis.

Karl Lashley

Eric Kandel

Endel Tulving is a notable cognitive psychologist who, along with his colleagues at the University of Toronto, conducted extensive research on memory. He is particularly known for his years-long study of patient K.C., whose case of severe amnesia provided significant insights into the functions of long-term memory.

Endel Tulving

In 1885, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus pioneered the experimental study of memory. His methodology involved memorizing lists of nonsense syllables and then systematically measuring his own retention by testing his ability to relearn the lists at various time intervals. This work led to his discovery of the forgetting curve.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Analyze the results from the following neuroscience experiment and explain the most logical conclusion about how the memory is physically stored in the brain.

Interpreting Experimental Results on Memory Storage

In an early attempt to physically locate the engram, Karl Lashley conducted experiments in which he created brain lesions in rats after they had learned to navigate a maze. He found that the rats retained the ability to find their way through the maze regardless of the size or specific location of the brain damage, demonstrating a lack of evidence for a localized memory trace.

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