Numerous forms of evidence suggest a fluctuation in PCE use by students (not used consistently across the semester, suggesting the influence of multiple factors). Researchers note how online PCE sales increase during finals weeks. A study that measured for PCEs in university wastewater recorded an increase of PCE use during periods of high stress, with the highest increase over baseline (760%) being finals week of the second semester. 

Arizona State University

The 2022 review explores the use of PCEs by healthy individuals, noting that short-term cognitive benefits are modest and inconsistently supported by evidence. The article raises concerns about potential harms, including cardiovascular risks, neural disruption, and dependency. Due to limited long-term safety data, the authors argue that non-medical use of these substances remains medically and ethically uncertain.

Benefits and Harms of 'Smart Drugs' (Nootropics, PCEs) in Healthy Individuals

Schifano, Fabrizio, et al. “Benefits and Harms of ‘Smart Drugs’ (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals.” Drugs, vol. 82, no. 6, Apr. 2022, pp. 633–47. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-022-01701-7.

Benefits and Harms of ‘Smart Drugs’ (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals Reference

An increase in processing speed does not necessarily associate with levels of executive function improvement. 
- Processing speed
- Executive functioning

Difference Between Processing Speed and Executive Functioning 

Fluctuation of PCE Use by Students

Research has noted that stimulant-based PCEs have addictive potential in healthy users due to their effects on neurotransmitter systems, particularly dopamine and glutamate. The enhancement of dopamine transmission and the modulation of glutamatergic signaling are both associated with reward and reinforcement pathways in the brain. This neuro-chemical activity contributes to their habit-forming qualities, raising concerns about dependency in non-clinical populations. 

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