For the purposes of this study recidivism is defined as, “measured by criminal acts that resulted in rearrest, reconviction or return to prison with or without a new sentence during a three-year period following the person's release” (N.I.J., 2019). Client, patient, participant, subject, offender(s) are all terms which apply to a person whose criminal acts resulting in recidivism are measured. 
Counselor, forensic counselor, rehabilitation counselor are all terms which are used interchangeably in this context.


University of Wisconsin - Superior

Licensed professional counselors are not required to study forensic counseling aspects to gain a general understanding of processes. As an organization, these types of counselors are most likely to work with offender populations, as are rehabilitation counselors whose task is to assess and ready parolees for vocational reintegration. However, stake holding universities, master’s degree counseling education programs in Wisconsin must begin to foster higher order ‎thinking skills, ‎taking concepts ‎of trauma from the concrete to the abstract, and understanding ‎the meaning of a complex ‎field of ‎knowledge such as forensics in corrections counseling (Tarvydas, 2018). The action research interventions in this study will make ‎connections, looking for relationships and ‎interdependencies in ‎this academic setting which might just ‎prepare counselors more thoroughly for who will ‎be an increasingly common clientele (Torpey, ‎‎2009). Therefore, it is hypothesized that given high levels of behavioral health interventions ‎and other therapies, during and after ‎sentence, patients allowed ‎these therapy interventions will show medium or ‎low recidivism in a ‎dependent ‎measure (Gowensmith, 2019).‎

Forensic Rehabilitaiton Counseling Practices Context of Action Research Study

Barros-Bailey, M., Carlisle, J., & Blackwell, T. L. (2010). Forensic Ethics and Indirect Practice for the ‎Rehabilitation Counselor. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 53(4), 237–242. ‎https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355210368728‎
Gowensmith, W. N. (2019). Resolution or resignation: The role of forensic mental health professionals ‎amidst the competency services crisis. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 25(1), 1–14.‎
Kluckow, R. and Zehn, Z. (2022) Correctional populations in the United States, 2020 – statistical tables, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Correctional Populations in the United States. Available at: https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/correctional-populations-united-states-2020-statistical-tables (Accessed: March 12, 2023). 
Kois, L. E., Cox, J., & Peck, A. T. (2021). Forensic e-mental health: Review, research priorities, and policy ‎directions. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 27(1), 1–16.‎
N.I.J. (2019) Recidivism, National Institute of Justice. Available at: https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/corrections/recidivism (Accessed: March 12, 2023). 
Nafekh, M. and Metiuk, L. (2002) The General Statistical Information of Recidivism Scale (GSIR), The General Statistical Information on Recidivism - Revised 1 (SIR-R1). Research Branch Correctional Service. Available at: https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/092/r126_e.pdf (Accessed: February 12, 2023). 
Ogloff, J. R. P., Talevski, D., Lemphers, A., Wood, M., & Simmons, M. (2015). Co-occurring mental ‎illness, substance use disorders, and antisocial personality disorder among clients of forensic ‎mental health services. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 38(1), 16–23.‎
Papalia, N., Spivak, B., Daffern, M., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2019). A meta‐analytic review of the efficacy of ‎psychological treatments for violent offenders in correctional and forensic mental health ‎settings. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 26(2).‎
Recidivism (2022) DOC Recidivism. The Primary Programs Report produced by the Wisconsin Department of Corrections (DOC) Research and Policy Unit and the Division of Adult Institutions (DAI) Office of Program Services. Available at: https://doc.wi.gov/Pages/DataResearch/Recidivism.aspx (Accessed: March 12, 2023). 
Robinson, R. H. (2014). Foundations of forensic vocational rehabilitation. Springer Publishing Company.‎
Salem, L., Crocker, A. G., Charette, Y., Seto, M. C., Nicholls, T. L., & Côté, G. (2015). Supportive housing ‎and forensic patient outcomes. Law and Human Behavior, 39(3), 311–320.‎
Tarvydas, V. M., & Hartley, M. T. (2018). The professional practice of rehabilitation counseling. Springer ‎Publishing Company, LLC.‎
Torpey, E.M. (2009). Careers in forensics: Analysis, evidence, and law. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, ‎‎53(1), 14-19.‎


References for Forensic Rehabilitation Counseling Practices and the Competency Crisis

How can licensed professional counselor provide unrestricted mental health care to forensic offenders?
What are the ways in which a person receiving services might ‎improve their behavioral health from a unique relationship with licensed professional counselors?
What positive influences does behavioral ‎‎health counseling have on parolees who subsequently show medium or ‎low recidivism in a ‎‎dependent measure?


Forensic Rehabilitation Counseling Practices Action Research Questions

Forensic Rehabilitation Counseling Practices Definition of Terms

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The literature review will address three areas of research related to low recidivism of ‎forensic patients in the Eau Claire County Jail, located in Eau Claire, Wisconsin offender rehabilitation ‎programs. The first section will address research related to rehabilitation work, the forensic field of ‎evaluation, and social services to criminal defendants. The second section will focus on research studies ‎about offender programs risk analyses, risk management and containment, prediction of recidivism, and ‎correlations of mental health ‎disorders and criminal offending. Finally, the third section will discuss ‎research related to the efficacy of ‎multimodal ‎psychological treatments, and supportive programming, ‎forensic variables in analysis, and evidence of significantly reduced ‎recidivism. ‎
Rehabilitation workers are the only field that currently helps evaluate and provide ‎social services to criminal defendants. The rehabilitation field is behind in general ‎caseloads and ‎cases rarely get the support and attention in full that is needed. The ‎competency service crisis in the modern forensic and legal field indicates ‎competency-‎related services are needed at monumental levels in the United States, ‎yet there are long wait lists for ‎competency evaluations and admission to ‎competency restoration services by psychologists, and mental health specialists. ‎Some ‎solutions do not adhere to ‎existing empirical research‎. There are several ‎areas of intervention related to competency and at this time. However, currently ‎the state of forensic ethics and indirect practice for the rehabilitation ‎counselor are ‎not specific to evaluees’ rights.‎
	The literature review will address these three areas of research. First, the forensic field ‎of psychology and social work methods. Second, offender programs and risks of ‎recidivism. Third, the efficacy of ‎‎psychological treatments, analysis, and evidence.‎ The literature review will also address three areas of research related to low ‎recidivism of ‎forensic patients in ‎‎Wisconsin offender rehabilitation ‎programs. The first ‎section will address ‎research related to rehabilitation work, the forensic field of ‎evaluation, and social ‎‎services to criminal defendants. The second section will focus on research studies ‎‎about offender ‎programs risk analyses, risk management and containment, ‎prediction of recidivism, and ‎correlations of ‎mental health ‎disorders and criminal ‎offending. Finally, the third section will discuss ‎research related to ‎the efficacy of ‎‎multimodal ‎psychological treatments, and supportive programming, ‎forensic ‎variables in ‎analysis, and evidence of significantly reduced ‎recidivism. ‎

Forensic Rehabilitation Counseling Practices Review of Literature

Torpey’s 2009 careers in forensics analysis proved that ‎rehabilitation counselors provided expertise based on their ‎specialized ‎knowledge in ‎rehabilitation by incorporating ‎disability in legal settings. However, in the early 2000s, ‎researched and ‎calculated rates of success in this role barely ‎existed within the ‎United States, as this was a new field ‎‎categorization. In other words, any mental ‎health counselor ‎who wished to work exclusively with forensic ‎clients was not ‎‎sufficiently trained, as there were no specific educational ‎preparation programs ‎at the master’s degree level, which was ‎and is required by most states for licensure. Thus, people ‎with ‎psychiatric and other disabilities in a forensic program, ready ‎to ‎reintegrate into ‎society following release from ‎incarceration, had been ‎marginalized.
To address the impact ‎and approach of the field as it evolved included ‎the increased ‎need for forensic practice and recognition beyond vocational ‎‎reintegration. Torpey examined the facts of several cases and ‎the context within which the ‎evaluation for rehabilitation was ‎taking place. The ‎exercise of expert clinical ‎judgment to ‎determine how subject-specific factors influenced the ‎‎‎inclusion or exclusion of each parameter was described within ‎his rehabilitation ‎models. Applications of clinical judgment ‎within the context of those models and ‎the ‎potentially negative ‎effect of jeopardizing the reliability and/or validity of ‎the ‎models was based on limiting the use such as timeliness and ‎improper ‎training.
Thus, Torpey provided a foundation for the ‎intervention of such issues. Suggestions for educating, training, ‎and utilizing all licensed professional counselors in the ‎‎capacity to offer client-counselor relationship, offering direct ‎‎assessment, counsel and support to the offending population ‎was the ideal intervention model.‎ Procedures Torpey utilized ‎were investigative in deciphering the underlying cause of ‎separation of factors, such as the methodological ‎approach ‎utilized by ‎opposing vocational consultants. Continued ‎research was needed to ‎further expand on methods, he highlighted ‎‎necessary core domains and schemas ‎essential to forensic ‎assessment‎. 
Through variables and measurements within ‎clinical application of the International Classification of ‎‎Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) for all ‎evaluees, ‎biopsychosocial models of functioning ‎and disability were ‎incorporated into treatment. These were related not only to ‎physical health ‎but ‎participation in life activities as with ‎environmental and ‎personal factors. Thereby, additional ‎models of ‎psychological and social disability of offenders were ‎created, for multiple, ‎continuous domains within which ‎‎environmental and personal factors were incorporated ‎into ‎rehabilitation efforts. In data analysis stages, overviews were ‎made of psychometric theory, assessment methods, ‎instruments, and ‎issues vital to forensic ‎vocational ‎consultation. This resulted in evidence that clinical judgment ‎and opinion of the validity of forensic rehabilitation counselors ‎had ‎the potential to broaden the ‎applications. By providing ‎opinions beyond the forensic ‎rehabilitation perspective, ‎concerning evaluee mental health an important ‎turning point ‎for evaluees may be reached. They may now have more ‎resources to rehabilitate after ‎their civil and criminal cases are ‎through.
The implications of this evidence were that those who ‎experienced psychological disorders leading up to ‎incarceration and within and by the prison system, showed ‎‎new biomedical perspectives upon which to apply ‎‎‎accommodation, which had been an essential aim of ‎‎rehabilitation counseling. Yet, interactional, and sociopolitical ‎factors which were not often accounted for, showed just as ‎much or more ‎importance to the process of reintegrating into ‎society by forensic evaluees. These ‎required not only ‎vocational rehabilitation, but also the ‎overcoming of the social, ‎attitudinal barriers and background ‎‎functioning of the evaluee. ‎Some weaknesses existed in this study, mainly the slow ‎implementation to ‎provide expertise, specialized knowledge ‎and certification of educational programs, approved for by ‎state boards and available to clinical mental health students of ‎all stages. Thus, disability rehabilitation beyond vocational ‎rehabilitation ‎focuses ‎directly on clients, or evaluees, in a ‎capacity like ‎behavioral health or mental health ‎therapy ‎may not be available for the unforeseen future (Torpey, 2009).‎
In resolution or resignation, Gowensmith, in 2019, ‎‎researched ‎the competency service crisis, investigated ‎competency-‎related services as they rise and the long wait lists which ‎existed ‎for ‎competency evaluations and ‎admission ‎rehabilitation services. There were ‎little successful solutions ‎due to variances in implementation, ‎existing ‎research and ‎experience‎. The purpose of Gowensmith’s research, he ‎purported, was his observations that while forensic mental ‎health professionals were ‎qualified, policy implications were ‎needed due to slow timing of evaluation ‎availability. He cited ‎even minimal attention had not been given to optimize ‎system ‎procedure. 
Thereby, counseling professionals should have ‎been trained in ‎competency-related services to honor ‎beneficence and nonmaleficence in the care of clients.‎ ‎Survey ‎samples included ‎competency-related services. Gowensmith ‎created data samples of ‎underserved people with disabilities ‎who are also forensically ‎involved. Time from referral to ‎‎evaluation lengths and restoration were calculated. Data ‎collection included populations in jail, those waiting on ‎‎evaluations or ‎transfer to mental health settings.‎ 
One ‎intervention suggested was for deliberators in the field to ‎‎allow competency-‎related assessment to be implemented by ‎‎licensed mental health professionals educated with less than a ‎PhD. Thus, ‎improving timeliness of services, creating more ‎humane conditions, ‎improving circumstances of the ‎competency crisis, and further ‎improvements of policy and ‎practice within the field.‎ Research using competency-related ‎case studies was described along with validity of reports and ‎‎opinions, outcomes of naturalistic studies, and impact of ‎policies on defendants. These were completed including data ‎from 16 states within the previous 10 ‎years. All variables and ‎measurement instruments included were for dissemination of ‎research data of previous studies, ‎taking into consideration the ‎efforts of investigation of ‎issues. These were combined with ‎research of clinical and ‎administrative expertise in the ‎development of ‎solutions. Full data analysis was made on jail-‎based restoration data which showed evidence of a potential ‎solution. 
It seemed the ‎evaluations could be shortened themselves, though ‎more empirical research ‎was needed. As a result, this research ‎showed a need to implement triage approaches, new ‎‎restoration rates, hospital ‎inpatient programs, overhauled ‎revocations, terminations, ‎and arrests. Implicating that the ‎implementation of jail restoration ‎settings, shortened timing of ‎evaluations would help to avoid delays, create more ‎consistent ‎operations, and expand programs of rehabilitation. However, ‎research and program evaluations were lacking, and ‎more ‎research was needed.‎
In 2010, Barros-Bailey, et al. investigated forensic ethics and ‎standards ‎specific to evaluees’ rights in the article forensic ‎ethics and indirect ‎practice for the rehabilitation counselor. ‎The state of forensic ethics and ‎indirect practice for the ‎‎rehabilitation ‎counselor was not specific to ‎evaluees’ rights. ‎Counselors who were ‎competent to ‎offer psychotherapy were ‎not ‎specifically trained in forensic practices. ‎Research studies ‎on the competency crisis and the lack of specificity to ‎evaluees’ ‎rights in current rehabilitation efforts. Investigating ‎whether a ‎‎development of a standalone section within codes of ethics ‎was ‎appropriate to ‎provide guidelines for such, the counselor’s ‎‎competency ‎and conduct were researched. This revealed that ‎most psychotherapy ‎counselors were not ‎specifically trained ‎in forensic practices.‎‎ Samples of the current code of ethics ‎were taken from those of licensed ‎professional counselors. Such ‎ethics directed all counselors to practice ‎only those ‎techniques ‎which were in scope of practice, these were ‎found to not ‎include forensic and indirect service techniques. Research ‎into ‎the needs for ‎expanded or new standards within the revised ‎code ‎proceeded. ‎An intervention was sought to benefit forensic ‎clients in a ‎behavioral health ‎capacity, not vocational. Such ‎changes in the ‎codes of ethics would direct all counselors to ‎practice new ‎techniques which were outside the current scope of ‎practice, forensic ‎and indirect service techniques.
‎Research ‎commenced upon procedures, allowed practices, and ‎utilization ‎of various tools, methods, and ‎resources to ‎deliver ‎effective vocational ‎reintegration, leaving out mental health ‎treatment. Qualitative and ‎quantitative data collected from ‎forensic rehabilitation specialists ‎determined ‎recommendations ‎which would directly aid the ‎evaluee, or ‎‎their legal team, correctional rehabilitation ‎team and others ‎about ‎regaining functionality of their body, and psychology.
‎However, this ‎research illuminated the high ‎demand for all ‎types of licensed professional ‎counselors ‎in forensic practice, ‎the pressure to completely change the ‎codes of ethics and the ‎length of time for this. ‎Interviews, data measurements and ‎variables of study were provided by ‎forensic counselors, who ‎provided their expertise based on their ‎specialized knowledge ‎in rehabilitation, and the limited ‎incorporation of ‎the non-‎forensic field in general.
Upon interview, the studies ‎asked ‎whom the practitioner expects to give psychological ‎evaluation to their ‎clients, typical delay periods and time-‎limitations enforced upon them to ‎apply brief solutions of ‎therapy. Workgroups studied, analyzed, ‎researched, and ‎debated and eventually ‎recommended changes and ‎‎enhancements to the ethical codes. Detailed reviews, ‎‎discussions and ‎debates by other certification and professional ‎bodies, as ‎well as the codes ‎of certifying bodies were ‎considered in how they concerned themselves ‎with the ‎regulation of practice ‎within their respective disciplines. ‎‎Qualitative data analysis was used to derive the definitions and ‎meaning of ‎codes. The quality data provided by focus groups ‎and qualitative ‎interviews were used in open-ended debate ‎and ‎discussion.‎ Data evaluation, assessment, and ‎interpretation were provided on ‎forensic evaluations, ‎objective findings, substantiation of information ‎and ‎techniques, upon examination and interview of individuals ‎with ‎psychological disabilities found in forensic offender ‎records.
The results of a changed, recognized section in codes ‎of ethics did not come to ‎fruition due to complications which ‎would leave rehabilitation ‎counselors ‎vulnerable to ethics ‎risks. Instead, the standing code provided guidelines in ‎terms ‎of ethical ‎behaviors and expectations which were fully vetted ‎and ‎understood.‎ The implication was that rehabilitation ‎counseling, as with ‎the related disciplines, psychology, ‎psychiatry, and social ‎work, will need to continue use of ‎previously established ‎independent guidelines or codes to ‎guide forensics ‎indefinitely.‎ The limitations found in this study ‎made clear that current ‎standards addressing ethics were ‎insufficient ‎guidance for ‎now. However, a more ‎comprehensive provision was not to be ‎forthcoming until ‎workgroups could ‎undertake more detailed ‎reviews of the ‎codes of ethics and of other certification and ‎professional ‎‎bodies, to develop and enhance them ‎permanently. ‎
In summary, researchers addressed rehabilitation workers, ‎the forensic field of evaluation, ‎and social ‎services to criminal ‎defendants. ‎Rehabilitation was the only field that helped ‎evaluate and ‎provide ‎social services to criminal defendants. ‎The rehabilitation field was behind in general ‎caseloads ‎and ‎‎cases and was rarely given the support and attention that was ‎needed. There were three areas ‎related to rehabilitation ‎workers in the forensic field, the competency crisis, ‎and the ‎indirect practice of ‎forensic psychology. The first area ‎addressed ‎research related to the problems of social work in ‎the ‎forensic field and decreased competency restoration ‎services available affect not only psychologists but extended ‎into other mental health specialist fields as well.  ‎Rehabilitation counselors were the only ‎forensic counselors ‎who ‎helped evaluate and provided ‎social services to criminal ‎‎defendants. Since the ‎social work field was behind in general ‎caseloads ‎and ‎‎cases rarely had the support and attention that ‎‎they needed, research authors ‎agreed that the competency ‎‎service crisis in the modern forensic and ‎legal field was ‎severely ‎impaired. ‎Competency-‎related services were needed ‎at ‎monumental levels in ‎the United States, yet there ‎were long ‎wait ‎lists. Some ‎solutions found by these researchers did not ‎‎adhere to ‎‎existing research‎. Suggestions were made that there ‎‎were several ways to evaluate ‎competency, and yet only ‎forensic ‎evaluators supplied such services as expert witness, ‎psychological ‎‎‎evaluation, and vocational rehabilitation.‎

Forensic Rehabilitaton Counseling Practices Research on Rehabilitation, Forensic E‎valuations, Social Services in Forensic Psychology

Research related to studies about offender programs risk analyses, ‎risk management and containment, prediction of recidivism, and ‎correlations of mental health ‎disorders and criminal offending. ‎Research author DeClue reviews forensic psychology services ‎from one state's sexually violent ‎offender program to investigate ‎if the evaluation instruments the inmate received is adequate ‎to ‎inventory their risks, needs and strengths. The author questions ‎whether risk management ‎and containment are adequately ‎assessed in typical tools and if they yield an accurate ‎prediction of ‎recidivism (DeClue, 2005). Similarly, Ogloff investigates ‎disorders ‎and criminal ‎offending, attempting to make sense of the few ‎studies which have real-life samples from ‎forensic mental health ‎‎services. He conducted a study to investigate the correlations ‎between ‎mental illness, specific disorders and forensic offending ‎concluding that participants with co-‎occurring mental illness ‎were responsible for more serious and frequent offending than ‎those ‎with mental illness ‎alone (Ogloff, 2015).  Tomlinson, 2018, ‎points to structured, skills-based, and risk-‎focused cognitive ‎behavioral therapy as a tool to ‎reduce recidivism. A detailed ‎exploration of ‎how these programs align with best practices is ‎given. The study offers very preliminary evidence (Tomlinson, ‎‎2018).‎ ‎
Researcher DeClue, in 2017, investigated the Inventory of ‎Offender Risks, ‎Needs, and Strengths (IORNS) as part of a ‎sexually violent predator (SVP) ‎program to determine if it ‎accurately determined risk analyses, risk ‎‎management and ‎containment, prediction ‎of recidivism, and correlations ‎of ‎mental health ‎disorders and ‎criminal offending. ‎The focus of ‎this ‎author’s research was the competency crisis ‎and ‎the lack ‎of specificity to ‎evaluees’ rights in current rehabilitation ‎efforts as an indicator of high ‎risk of recidivism due to mental ‎health ‎disorders. Specifically reviewed was the Inventory of ‎Offender Risks, Needs, and ‎Strengths (IORNS), 
DeClue opined ‎that even advanced risk assessment was ‎no guarantee of ‎effective forensic evaluation, and the IORNS was not ‎‎appropriate for evaluation or re-evaluation of a person facing ‎civil ‎commitment ‎as a sexually violent predator in the state of ‎Florida.‎ Examination was given to the forensic laws and other ‎legal publications of the state of ‎Florida, specifically Florida ‎statutes (FS 394.912(10)), and (FS ‎‎394.912(4)).‎ This ‎determined that the manner in which a psychologist gathers ‎data, opines, and ‎communicates the risk assessment is crucial ‎in ‎a legal case. ‎DeClue held a discussion forum to answer his ‎research questions. ‎Interviews were held with his legal ‎constituents, and a forensic psychology ‎clinical director of ‎Florida’s ‎sexually violent predator (SVP) program. The ‎‎question posed was if the IORNS was appropriate for use in ‎evaluating or ‎re-evaluating a person facing civil commitment ‎as a sexually ‎violent ‎predator. ‎Comparison was made of the ‎answers to his question and the ‎summaries regarding three ‎civil commitments of ‎sexually violent predators, the applied ‎risk ‎assessment, risk ‎management, and risk ‎communication ‎and following civil commitment of ‎sexually violent predators.  ‎‎Data analysis considered the opinions of his colleagues, ‎forensic ‎psychologist, law statutes and past criminal case ‎studies.
In result, DeClue assessed that the IORNS held ‎inadequate evidentiary support for ‎psychologist's expert ‎witness in communication about risk of recidivism. These ‎denotative findings rendered the IORNS irrelevant to legal ‎questions in particular ‎‎cases due to exclusion of dynamic risk ‎variables, clear descriptors of limitations on ‎confidence, and ‎lack of certainty in court. Though DeClue’s studies are rife for ‎potential bias of opinions from legal colleagues and forensic ‎‎psychologists his interpretations of findings were sound in ‎which he suggested there were no guarantees of effective ‎forensic psychological evaluation and consultation in general. ‎He surmised they simply lack relevancy without utilizing ‎specific legal case descriptors first.‎
In 2015, Ogloff et al., wrote research article studies that pertained to ‎offender program risk ‎analyses, risk ‎management and ‎‎containment, prediction of recidivism, ‎and correlations of ‎mental health ‎disorders and ‎criminal ‎offending as ‎related to ‎the competency service crisis in the modern forensic and legal ‎‎field. ‎Indicative of the lack of ‎competency-‎related services, and ‎long wait ‎lists, admissions problems into ‎‎competency ‎restoration services have not ‎been solved. Further research of ‎offender programs and risks ‎of ‎recidivism drew a direct ‎correlation of disorders and ‎criminal ‎offending. ‎Investigating ‎the correlations between, ‎‎specifically, ‎psychiatric disorders ‎and forensic offending ‎concluded that the ‎participants ‎with co-‎‎occurring psychiatric mental disorders were responsible for ‎‎‎more ‎serious and frequent offenses and high recidivism. 
Ogloff ‎created a unique research study investigating correlations of ‎co-‎occurring psychiatric ‎disorders and criminal offending. ‎Taking into consideration ‎samples provided by forensic mental ‎health ‎services, correlation of ‎severe psychiatric mental ‎illness, and offending was found. In this study, psychiatric ‎illness and people assessed and treated by ‎forensic mental ‎health services were made possible through ‎examination of ‎mental disorders in a sample of offenders. Correlations ‎were ‎drawn on how the participants were being assessed or treated ‎‎by a statewide forensic mental health service. The study ‎collected and ‎examined rates of disorders and offending ‎variables in participants. Ogloff sought evidentiary support for ‎the presence of mental ‎disorders in most members of ‎an offender community.
By ‎demonstrating prevalence of ‎psychiatric disorders in offending ‎populations, these results ‎proved that people who are serving ‎sentences in a maximum-security prison setting must have their ‎mental health ‎considered in factors of recidivism since they were ‎responsible ‎for more serious and frequent offending. Also, the study ‎provided a measure of proof to ensure forensic workers ‎became knowledgeable of these facts and would henceforth be ‎actively supportive in the recovery for the ‎populations they ‎worked with, from mental ‎illnesses to reduction of ‎re-‎offending‎‎. 
Deriving information from resources provided on ‎offense histories and ‎severity scales of offending comparison of ‎co-occurring mental illness ‎was made by availability of mental ‎health records of 130 male offenders associated with ‎statewide ‎forensic services.‎ Samples were taken of ‎participants who had major mental ‎disorders co-occurring ‎with offenses, associations to violence, substance ‎use ‎disorders, mental disorders, and antisocial personality ‎disorders. ‎These were categorically measured and correlated ‎by ‎sociodemographic information, psychiatric diagnosis, ASPD ‎diagnosis, ‎acute substance use at time of offending, offending ‎history and severity. ‎The resulting majority were found to ‎have had mental disorders and were responsible for more ‎‎serious, frequent offending. Overall, Ogloff’s 2015 research ‎studies showed direct correlations of ‎mental health ‎disorders ‎and ‎criminal ‎offending which ‎contribute to the competency ‎service crisis in the modern ‎forensic and legal field. ‎This study ‎was limited by possible deliberate distortion of ‎responses and ‎recall bias, however the accuracy of assessment ‎cannot be ‎ruled out due to previous studies having had similar ‎reliable ‎evidence. Further limitations of this study were a lack ‎of other ‎gendered participants.‎
Tomlinson addressed the difficulties of patient treatments in ‎forensic ‎psychiatric settings such as complex, multi‐‎diagnostics, unsuccessfully ‎implemented therapies and ‎comprehensive treatment needs.‎ An analysis was made of ‎treatment measures for anger, aggression, hopefulness, ‎coping, ‎emotions, insights, and symptoms. A sample of ‎14 adult ‎participants who were in mental health treatment in one ‎state, ‎were all given dialectical behavioral treatment programs with ‎‎questionnaires prior to and after the group study. Data was ‎collected ‎for research, along with information from their ‎medical charts on ‎demographics, criminality, risks, psychiatric, ‎and social history ‎voluntarily.‎ Treatment ensued with ‎dialectical behavior ‎therapy, incorporating Eastern ‎‎philosophies and traditional cognitive behavioral principles to ‎‎address their difficulties in forensic psychiatric settings such as ‎‎complex, multi‐diagnostics, unsuccessfully implemented ‎therapies ‎and comprehensive treatment needs with DBT.‎ Self‐‎reports, psychometric tests, and DBT skills training were given ‎and ‎measured results taken.‎ Participants completed self‐‎report psychometric ‎tests before and after completion of the ‎DBT skills ‎training group. Measurement order was ‎randomized.‎ Data was met for all assumptions for analysis, if ‎data were missed, it was ‎replaced with the average response.
‎In results, all ‎14 adult patient participants completed the ‎assessments before and after DBT. ‎Results suggested a limited ‎improvement, though the patterns of change ‎suggest ‎otherwise. Alternatives were suggested as well, such as the ‎results may ‎be imperceptible due to the small sample, or not ‎sensitive enough to detect the ‎change.‎ After completion of the ‎DBT participation participants ‎returned to community living ‎and results were not tracked ‎further upon discharge.‎ ‎Limitations of this participant experiment were that it was ‎lacking in ‎design and control group. Similarly, by the nature of ‎primary ‎diagnoses of psychoses individuals would experience ‎lessened ‎psychotic symptoms through DBT and it was ‎impossible to ‎decipher whether participants who were ‎treatment ‎responsive were overwhelmingly chosen for the ‎study.‎
In summary, research author DeClue reviewed forensic psychology services ‎from one state's sexually violent ‎offender program to investigate ‎if the evaluation instruments the inmate received were adequate ‎‎to inventory their risks, needs and strengths. The author ‎questioned whether risk management ‎and containment were ‎adequately assessed in typical tools and if they yielded an ‎accurate ‎prediction of recidivism (DeClue, 2005). Similarly, Ogloff ‎investigated ‎disorders and criminal ‎offending, attempting to ‎make sense of the few studies which had real-life samples from ‎‎forensic mental health ‎services. He conducted a study to ‎investigate the correlations between ‎mental illness, specific ‎disorders and forensic offending concluding that participants ‎with co-‎occurring mental illness were responsible for more ‎serious and frequent offending than those ‎with mental illness ‎‎alone (Ogloff, 2015).  Tomlinson pointed to structured, skills-‎based, and risk-‎focused cognitive behavioral therapy as a tool to ‎‎reduce recidivism. A detailed exploration of ‎how these programs ‎align with best practices was given. The study offered preliminary ‎evidence.‎ ‎

Forensic Rehabilitation Counseling Practices, Studies ‎on Offender Programs, Risk Analysis, Prediction and Correlation of Mental Health

Research related to the efficacy of ‎multimodal ‎psychological ‎treatments, supportive ‎programming, forensic variables in analysis, has led to come evidence of significantly reduced ‎recidivism.‎ The rehabilitation counseling field is behind in general ‎caseloads ‎and ‎cases rarely get the ‎support and attention needed. Research is ‎beginning to relate the efficacy of ‎multimodal ‎‎psychological ‎treatments, and supportive programming, to forensic variables in ‎analysis, ‎and evidentiary support of significantly reduced ‎‎recidivism. However, since rehabilitation ‎workers are the only ‎field that currently helps evaluate and provide ‎social services to ‎‎criminal defendants, a ‎competency service crisis in the modern ‎forensic and legal fields ‎have created a monumental need for ‎‎competency-‎related services, ‎yet there are long ‎wait lists for ‎‎competency evaluations and admission to ‎competency restoration ‎services ‎by psychologists, and mental health specialists. So far, the ‎‎solutions applied to this ‎problem rarely make a difference, ‎according to ‎existing empirical research‎. There are ‎several ‎areas ‎of intervention related to competency, however, at this time ‎the ‎state of ‎forensic ethics and indirect practice for the rehabilitation ‎‎counselor are ‎not specific to ‎evaluees’ rights. Therefore, efficacy ‎of ‎‎psychological treatments, analysis, and evidence‎ ‎are in ‎question. Further research providing proof of efficacy of ‎‎‎‎psychological treatments, ‎analysis, as evidenced by low ‎‎recidivism is needed.‎
Papalia, et al., 2019 made a meta‐analytic review of the ‎efficacy of psychological treatments ‎for violent offenders to ‎identify correlations between psychological treatments in ‎‎correctional mental health settings and significantly reduced ‎recidivism. ‎‎Findings show multimodal treatments have strong ‎effects on recidivism. Investigations of violence causation in ‎the United States, show evidence that it is a ‎leading cause of ‎death in correctional communities. Therefore, finding ‎‎treatments that are effective is important not only for ‎providers, but other ‎residents in rehabilitation who may ‎become a victim of such violent ‎crimes while incarcerated.‎ ‎This meta‐analytic review of published and unpublished ‎original ‎research studies targeted populations who were adult ‎violent ‎offenders, who had been incarcerated between 1990 ‎and 2018, and whose ‎treatments included the principles of the ‎risk–need–responsivity ‎model for treatment formalized in ‎‎1990, and commonly associated with low ‎recidivism.
‎Intervention was attempted utilizing psychological treatments ‎of ‎cognitive behavioral therapy, schema therapy, dialectical ‎behavior ‎therapy, and motivational interviewing to reduce ‎violence and ‎aggression of the target population.‎ Intervention ‎population outcomes were compared to outcomes of a ‎control ‎population who did not receive any psychological treatment. ‎Procedures for matching the group member’s risk ‎variables ‎considered their prior offenses ‎and risk of recidivism. There ‎were little to no differences between ‎the group’s members.‎
‎Primary data was collected on the outcomes of psychological ‎treatment ‎effects including violent recidivism, or general ‎recidivism. Outcome variables were simply categorized as new ‎criminal offenses or no new criminal offenses as defined ‎by ‎institution policy and regulations. Completed and in progress ‎‎systematic and narrative reviews within the subject matter ‎were ‎reviewed and 16 field experts were consulted. Relative to ‎non-violent offenders, violent offenders significantly reduced ‎violent recidivisms after ‎receiving psychological treatments ‎with intensive cognitive-behavioral ‎techniques. It was ‎inconclusive whether ‎these results would be consistent for all ‎violent offenders outside of an ‎inpatient correctional facility ‎community. 
Overall, results suggested psychological treatment ‎as an ‎effective measure for violence and general recidivism in ‎adult ‎violent offenders. Evidence of choice of techniques ‎applied in therapy having influenced levels of recidivism did ‎not show conclusive evidence, it was assumed that all ‎intensive CBT relapse prevention, role‐‎play, homework, ‎interpersonal skills, and anger control methods should be ‎further considered as types of treatments that provided low ‎‎recidivism. High potential for bias was possible, so two ‎categories of offense types were excluded from the study. 
Offenders with past ‎treatment attrition and dropouts were ‎excluded as were ‎offenders who had previously been assessed ‎for acts such as ‎self‐harm, difficult‐to‐manage behavior, ‎attention‐seeking ‎behavior, ignoring, and complaining. In ‎addition, this was an all-male ‎participant study, leaving no or ‎inconclusive evidence of other ‎gender outcomes. The number ‎of participants in this study ‎was low, more research is needed ‎for the study of high ‎populations in outpatient and inpatient ‎forensic facility ‎treatment programs.‎
Salem et al., in ‎‎2015, conducted a review of the barriers to ‎supportive housing forensic patients face and ‎how their ‎rehabilitation outcomes are affected. Investigation was ‎conducted to reveal why supportive housing in the ‎clinical and ‎criminal trajectories of forensic patients had shown multiple ‎‎‎barriers, and caused patients to seek housing elsewhere and ‎eventually ‎experience criminal recidivism which could have ‎been intervened. Samples were taken from government ‎records of participants hearings, dispositions, psychiatric ‎histories, ‎diagnosis, criminal history, and severity index of ‎offenses and research of forensic ‎interaction of sample people ‎and psychiatric intervention workers.
Promotion of social ‎reintegration through supportive housing ‎placement upon ‎discharge had been thwarted by delays ‎and inaccessibility ‎barriers for those individuals evaluated and ‎found not ‎criminally responsible on account of mental disorder ‎‎‎(NCRAMD) in North America. Therefore, an evaluation was ‎made of the role of housing for forensic patients who attempt ‎to ‎reintegrate into the community via applying for supportive ‎housing. Data was ‎extracted from national studies in North ‎America focused on random samples of ‎participants who ‎sought such housing and whose sociodemographic, clinical, ‎‎and criminal variables showed likelihood of criminal ‎recidivism. Then, ‎participants within a psychiatric facility ‎were tracked over a 5-year period to analyze those who ‎were ‎eventually forced to live outside of ‎supportive housing during ‎the study period and who faced ‎difficulty in accessing the ‎intermediary housing compared to discharged participants ‎who committed general new offenses ‎and violent offenses ‎against others.‎
Data gathered from government health records ‎included participants’ ‎early hearings, dispositions, length of ‎detention sentences, verdicts, days ‎spent in custody, types of ‎mental health facilities where treatment was ‎previously ‎sought, maximum number of hospitalizations, diagnoses - one ‎‎or multiple, criminal histories, convictions, and conditions of ‎discharge. 
Comparisons were made of participants with ‎reconviction within fixed ‎follow-up periods to the group ‎utilizing a bell curve of time to event with ‎a log rank test. ‎Regression models were analyzed for predictive values ‎of ‎violent and non-violent recidivism including scaling and ‎hazard and ‎odds ratios. Results found that recidivism ‎increased for participants who committed a new offense, and ‎more of those offenses were violence against others. A large ‎portion of the sample ‎were readmitted to psychiatric facilities. ‎Implicating data thus showed evidence that interpersonal ‎violence, and ‎readmission to psychiatric treatment was ‎heightened ‎considerably, for persons without housing support, ‎compared with individuals ‎able to secure supportive housing. 
Further correlation was made ‎as to the influence housing had ‎on the types of forensic patients’ recidivism. Weaknesses in ‎this study occurred as only previously ‎recorded offenses could ‎be analyzed for recidivism and ‎criminal history so that a large ‎percentage of psychiatric ‎patients who had committed an act ‎of violence were not part ‎of the reports. It had to be considered ‎also, that assaultive and ‎criminal behavior is dealt with at a ‎higher threshold of ‎tolerance for residents in psychiatric care. ‎Therefore, further ‎research is needed to distinguish between ‎preventive and ‎reactive psychiatric readmission. No published ‎research was ‎able to be consulted in that it had not been ‎conducted at the ‎time.‎
For Weisberg’s 2011, Meanings and Measures of Recidivism ‎article he opined that more pragmaticism was ‎required to help ‎redefine current measures of recidivism. He cited variations in ‎‎causation of crime rates over time and place as having created ‎barriers to ‎prediction of recidivism by government agencies, ‎who hoped to intercede and prevent ‎crime. Conversely, he ‎argued that criminal justice agencies could not ‎resolve ‎recidivism, nor should they, as injury from crime was the same ‎‎regardless. His research showed examples of some social and ‎cultural conditions that may have ‎caused crimes and that there ‎was no ability to control such. He cited that ‎no interventions, ‎ethics, practice, or rights would improve efficacy of ‎‎‎‎‎psychological treatments or analysis to lower recidivism. ‎Through citation and reporting of social and cultural ‎conditions as possible causes of ‎crime, studies investigated ‎populations of convicted and punished offenders, ‎limited to ‎bring forth single causations of their criminal offenses.
‎Issues ‎recognized by this research were questions, assumptions, ‎‎evaluations, deployments, invocations, and conceptualizations ‎that ‎have been created for criminal justice measurement, and ‎how they ‎do little to focus on the frequency of recidivism for a ‎person or a ‎society as a whole. ‎Studies commenced of the ratio ‎of new court commitments to parole violators as another ‎possible measurement of comparison to crime prevention ‎success. ‎Similarly, ratios were cited of prisoner releases and ‎‎conditional releases to parole violators who return as ‎indicative of ‎recidivism. Further study was cited from essays, ‎populations, ‎starting events, types and seriousness of ‎‎recidivism, time periods, data sources and ‎compared those ‎ratios with current knowledge of ‎crime prevention.
‎Data ‎collections were compiled utilizing various law and forensic ‎‎documents of research, case studies of litigation, constitutional ‎‎amendments, studies of relapse in the California criminal ‎justice system, ‎national newspaper articles, multiple state ‎prison and parole policies. Resulting opinions by the author, ‎that social and cultural conditions had caused crime, he ‎reported overall national rates had not changed in two ‎decades, and recidivism ‎was not a logical goal, citing low rates ‎of second homicides by the same offender as evidence. ‎‎Research considered how rationales and mechanisms of ‎punishment bear on ‎the issue of recidivism, and questioned ‎parts of the criminal justice systems ‎abilities to control ‎recidivism.
In conclusion, no scientific evidence-based support ‎was indicated, rather the author’s opinions or ‎urgence for legal ‎and criminal, forensic field workers to recognize the ‎complexities of evaluated successes within our ‎criminal justice ‎systems beyond recidivism.‎

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