Women are more likely to use less dangerous suicide methods, such as medication overdose, while men are more likely to use highly lethal suicide methods, such as shooting. Researchers believe that these methods are strongly tied to societal gender roles.

Claremont McKenna College

Include any and all thoughts of self-harm and or thoughts of ending one's life. Can be caused by psychiatric disorders and chronic illness.

Suicidal Ideations

1. Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (2017). Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: Meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms. Psychological Bulletin, 143(8), 783–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000102

4. Tsoutsi, V., Papadakaki, M., Yannis, G., Pavlou, D., Basta, M., Chliaoutakis, J., & Dikeos, D. (2023). Driving behaviour in depression based on subjective evaluation and data from a driving simulator. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(8), 5609. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20085609

5. Rubenstein, L. M., Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Flynn, M., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2015). The cyclical nature of depressed mood and future risk: Depression, rumination, and deficits in emotional clarity in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 42(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.015

10. Choi, Y., Lee, M., Lee, J. P., Park, M., Lee, S. Y., & Hahm, H. C. (2020). Disempowering parenting and Mental Health Among Asian American Youth: Immigration and Ethnicity. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101077

11. Liu, X.-Q., Guo, Y.-X., Zhang, W.-J., & Gao, W.-J. (2022). Influencing factors, prediction and prevention of depression in college students: A literature review. World Journal of Psychiatry, 12(7), 860–873. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v12.i7.860

12. Conner, K. R., Pinquart, M., & Gamble, S. A. (2009). Meta-analysis of depression and substance use among individuals with alcohol use disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 37(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.11.007

13. Rogers, D. L., Tanaka, M. J., Cosgarea, A. J., Ginsburg, R. D., & Dreher, G. M. (2023). How mental health affects injury risk and outcomes in athletes. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach, 16(2), 222–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381231179678

14. Steinert, C., Hofmann, M., Kruse, J., & Leichsenring, F. (2014). Relapse rates after psychotherapy for depression – stable long-term effects? A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 168, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.06.043

15. Melrose, S. (2011). Perfectionism and depression: Vulnerabilities nurses need to understand. Nursing Research and Practice, 2011, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/858497

16. Smalley, K. B., Warren, J. C., & Barefoot, K. N. (2016). Connection between depression and inability to fill prescriptions in rural FQHC patients with chronic disease. Journal of Rural Mental Health, 40(2), 113–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/rmh0000051

17. Raza, A., Partonen, T., Hanson, L. M., Asp, M., Engström, E., Westerlund, H., & Halonen, J. I. (2024). Daylight during winters and symptoms of depression and sleep problems: A within-individual analysis. Environment International, 183, 108413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.108413

18. Lin, L. yi, Sidani, J. E., Shensa, A., Radovic, A., Miller, E., Colditz, J. B., Hoffman, B. L., Giles, L. M., & Primack, B. A. (2016). Association between social media use and depression among U.S. young adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22466

19. Zare, H., Meyerson, N. S., Nwankwo, C. A., & Thorpe, R. J. (2022). How income and income inequality drive depressive symptoms in U.S. adults, does sex matter: 2005–2016. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 6227. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106227

20. Campbell, P. D., Miller, A. M., & Woesner, M. E. (2017). Bright Light Therapy: Seasonal Affective Disorder and Beyond. The Einstein journal of biology and medicine : EJBM, 32, E13–E25.

21. Jiang, Z., Egan, S. J., Greene, D., Frost, M., Ma, Y., & Shafran, R. (2025). The impact of perfectionism on treatment outcomes of mental health disorders: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2025.2547199

22. Komischke-Konnerup, K. B., Zachariae, R., Johannsen, M., Nielsen, L. D., & O’Connor, M. (2021). Co-occurrence of prolonged grief symptoms and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress in bereaved adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 4, 100140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100140

23. Auersperg, F., Vlasak, T., Ponocny, I., & Barth, A. (2019). Long-term effects of parental divorce on Mental Health – a meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 119, 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.09.011 

27. Abdulhamed, R., Lonka, K., Hietajärvi, L., Ikonen, R., & Klemetti, R. (2022). Anxiety and depression symptoms and their association with discrimination and a lack of social support among first- and second-generation immigrant adolescents. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 87, 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2022.03.001 

29. Chugani, C. D., Goldstein, T. R., Salk, R. H., Poling, K., Sakolsky, D., & Brent, D. (2020). Group Intervention for Young Adults With Mood and Anxiety Disorders Transitioning to College. Journal of psychiatric practice, 26(2), 120–125. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000456

30. Yttredahl, A. A., McRobert, E., Sheler, B., Mickey, B. J., Love, T. M., Langenecker, S. A., Zubieta, J. K., & Hsu, D. T. (2018). Abnormal emotional and neural responses to romantic rejection and acceptance in depressed women. Journal of affective disorders, 234, 231–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.083

31. Mandal, B., Ayyagari, P., & Gallo, W. T. (2011). Job loss and depression: the role of subjective expectations. Social science & medicine (1982), 72(4), 576–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.11.014

34. Deng, Y., Cherian, J., Khan, N. U. N., Kumari, K., Sial, M. S., Comite, U., Gavurova, B., & Popp, J. (2022). Family and Academic Stress and Their Impact on Students' Depression Level and Academic Performance. Frontiers in psychiatry, 13, 869337. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.869337

35. Lok, R., & Zeitzer, J. M. (2025). Chronotype and Mental Health: Are Late Sleepers More Vulnerable?. Current psychiatry reports, 27(10), 544–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-025-01626-4

36. Franzen, P. L., & Buysse, D. J. (2008). Sleep disturbances and depression: risk relationships for subsequent depression and therapeutic implications. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 10(4), 473–481. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.4/plfranzen

37. Hou, X., & Hu, J. (2023). Depression and bedtime procrastination: Chain mediation of brooding and perceived stress. Heliyon, 9(12), e22672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22672

38. Kizilbash, A. (2002). The effects of depression and anxiety on memory performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17(1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-6177(00)00101-3 

39. Kim, S., Jang, Y. S., & Park, E. C. (2025). Associations between social isolation, withdrawal, and depressive symptoms in young adults: a cross-sectional study. BMC psychiatry, 25(1), 327. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06792-6

40. Murthy, R. S., & Lakshminarayana, R. (2006). Mental health consequences of war: a brief review of research findings. World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 5(1), 25–30.

41. Carpiniello B. (2023). The Mental Health Costs of Armed Conflicts-A Review of Systematic Reviews Conducted on Refugees, Asylum-Seekers and People Living in War Zones. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(4), 2840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042840

42. Feitosa, C. D. A., & Fernandes, M. A. (2020). Leave of absence due to depression. Revista latino-americana de enfermagem, 28, e3274. https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-8345.3634.3274

43. Alshammaa, H. I., Al-Taie, R. H., & Mujbel, A. M. (2024). Impact of Long-Term Depression on Employment Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Case Series From Iraq on Career Trajectory and Job Stability. Cureus, 16(10), e70755. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.70755

44. Dupéré, V., Dion, E., Nault-Brière, F., Archambault, I., Leventhal, T., & Lesage, A. (2018). Revisiting the Link Between Depression Symptoms and High School Dropout: Timing of Exposure Matters. The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 62(2), 205–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.09.024

45. Ye, Z., Wu, D., He, X., Ma, Q., Peng, J., Mao, G., Feng, L., & Tong, Y. (2023). Meta-analysis of the relationship between bullying and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. BMC psychiatry, 23(1), 215. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04681-4

46. Klein, D. N., Kotov, R., & Bufferd, S. J. (2011). Personality and depression: explanatory models and review of the evidence. Annual review of clinical psychology, 7, 269–295. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104540

47. Breier, A., Charney, D. S., & Heninger, G. R. (1984). Major depression in patients with agoraphobia and panic disorder. Archives of general psychiatry, 41(12), 1129–1135. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790230015002

48. Doolittle, B. R., & Farrell, M. (2004). The Association Between Spirituality and Depression in an Urban Clinic. Primary care companion to the Journal of clinical psychiatry, 6(3), 114–118. https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.v06n0302

49. Moore MJ, Shawler E, Jordan CH, et al. Veteran and Military Mental Health Issues. [Updated 2023 Aug 17]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK572092/

50. Targum, S. D., & Fava, M. (2011). Fatigue as a residual symptom of depression. Innovations in clinical neuroscience, 8(10), 40–43.

51. Ramadhan, R. N., Rampengan, D. D., Yumnanisha, D. A., Setiono, S. B., Tjandra, K. C., Ariyanto, M. V., Idrisov, B., & Empitu, M. A. (2024). Impacts of digital social media detox for mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Narra J, 4(2), e786. https://doi.org/10.52225/narra.v4i2.786

References for Depression

States that suicidal ideation stems from feeling like a burden to others and feeling outcasted.

Interpersonal Psychological Theory of Suicidal Behavior

States that suicidal ideation stems from a variety of motivational and volitional factors, including but not limited to: defeat, entrapment, a lack of social support, level of fear on the topic of death, and perfectionism.

Integrated Motivational-Volitional Model

In recent years, there has been an increase in suicide rates in young women as opposed to young men. In addition, certain factors such as alcohol use, military service and standing, ethnicity, and sexuality have led to an increase in suicide rates across both genders.

Gender Differences (Statistics)

Gender Differences (Suicidal Acts)

Defined as explicit thoughts of ending one's life. According to the Interpersonal Theory, active ideations occur when one feels like a burden and when one experiences thwarted belongingness. 

Active Suicidal Ideations

Defined as a desire for death rather than explicit thoughts of ending one's life. In addition, the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide posits that either perceived burdensomeness or thwarted belongingness is enough to trigger passive ideations.

Passive Suicidal Ideations

1. De Beurs, D., Fried, E. I., Wetherall, K., Cleare, S., O’ Connor, D. B., Ferguson, E., O’Carroll, R. E., & O’ Connor, R. C. (2019). Exploring the psychology of Suicidal Ideation: A theory driven network analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 120, 103419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2019.103419

2. Carretta, R. F., McKee, S. A., & Rhee, T. G. (2023). Gender differences in risks of suicide and suicidal behaviors in the USA: A narrative review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 25(12), 809–824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01473-1

3. Simion, S.-P., & Jung, H. (2025). Gender disparities in suicide: A deeper look into the complexity of suicidal acts. Legal Medicine, 77, 102679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2025.102679

4. Wastler, H. M., Khazem, L. R., Ammendola, E., Baker, J. C., Bauder, C. R., Tabares, J., Bryan, A. O., Szeto, E., & Bryan, C. J. (2022). An empirical investigation of the distinction between passive and active ideation: Understanding the latent structure of suicidal thought content. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 53(2), 219–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12935

5. Oh, D. J., Shin, Y. C., Oh, K. S., Shin, D. W., Jeon, S. W., & Cho, S. J. (2023). Examining the links between burnout and suicidal ideation in diverse occupations. Frontiers in public health, 11, 1243920. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1243920

References for Suicidal Ideation

Researchers conducting a cross-sectional study on 12,083 19-65 aged participants in the South Korean workforce found that workers with exhaustion were more likely to develop suicidal ideation. In addition, exhausted workers with a low job position and educational background were more susceptible to developing suicidal ideation.

Learn Before

Related