Metaphoricity: We collect metaphoricity scores by asking simple questions of crowdworkers. After that, we check if the results are reliable by using MIPVU.

Metaphoricity

Novelty: An advantage of using novelty is that it is easier to evaluate than creativity or originality. In the evaluation of novelty, an evaluator gives the highest score if he or she has never heard of or used the target expression, and the lowest score if the expression is widely used and conventional.

A simple idea of automation: It may be possible to measure novelty by counting the number of occurrences of expressions.

Novelty

Comprehensibility serves as a constraint to keep the generated result meaningful. This metric is more important for metaphors than for similes.(People need knowledge or context to understand metaphors.)

Comprehensibility

Overall evaluation: While it can be defined in many ways, for simplicity, we calculate it by just adding the three metrics.

Overall evaluation

MIPVU: First, annotators determine the contextual meaning of the target word. Then, they look up the word in a dictionary and search for a more basic meaning than the contextual meaning. If a more basic meaning exists, the contextual meaning differs from the basic meaning, and if it can be understood in comparison, then it is judged as a metaphor-related word.

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Intuition is a method of knowing where individuals rely on their instincts, emotions, and gut feelings to guide their understanding rather than examining objective facts or applying rational logic. It involves accepting a belief as true simply because it inherently feels right or because someone's behavior intuitively seems unusual, prompting the need to critically evaluate whether such subjective knowledge should be fully trusted.

Intuition

Judge metaphoricity in a systematic way

A primary drawback of relying on intuition is that intuitive judgments are frequently incorrect. This vulnerability arises because instinctual decisions are driven by cognitive and motivational biases rather than being grounded in logical reasoning, objective facts, or scientific evidence.

Limitations of Intuition

Despite its limitations, intuition can occasionally be an advantageous decision-making tool. Continuously weighing every alternative and analyzing all possibilities can lead to paralyzing indecision. In such situations, making rapid choices guided by intuitive feelings can sometimes be superior to relying entirely on strict logical analysis.

Benefits of Intuition

Relying strictly on the method of authority to obtain knowledge is inherently problematic because authority figures are not infallible. They may provide incorrect information, base their conclusions on their own flawed intuition rather than empirical evidence, or possess hidden motives to mislead their audience.

Limitations of the Method of Authority

Because humans lack the natural cognitive capacity for extensive observation, memory, and complex analysis, forming perfectly accurate beliefs is nearly impossible. This cognitive limitation forces people to rely on mental shortcuts to process everyday information and form conclusions.

Cognitive Limits in Belief Formation

Confirmation bias is the cognitive tendency to selectively focus on cases that validate our pre-existing intuitive beliefs while actively disregarding or forgetting cases that contradict them. This mental shortcut leads individuals to reinforce incorrect assumptions by ignoring disconfirming evidence.

Confirmation Bias

Motivational bias is the cognitive tendency to hold onto incorrect intuitive beliefs simply because it is emotionally pleasing or comforting if they were true. People maintain these incorrect beliefs, often despite a lack of empirical evidence, because the beliefs provide hope or foster positive feelings about themselves.

Motivational Bias

Scientists cultivate an attitude of skepticism, which means pausing to consider alternatives and to search for evidence—especially systematically collected empirical evidence—when there is enough at stake to justify doing so. It does not mean being cynical, distrustful, or questioning every claim one comes across.

Scientific Skepticism

Before conducting formal experiments, scientists must first formulate ideas and hypotheses to test. To generate these new concepts, researchers frequently draw upon foundational methods of knowing, including intuition, authority, rationalism, and basic empiricism, before subjecting them to rigorous scientific evaluation.

Idea Generation in the Scientific Method

An everyday example of intuition is believing that a friend is lying to you simply because she is acting strange and avoiding eye contact. This scenario illustrates how knowledge can be acquired through subjective, intuitive feelings about someone's behavior rather than objective evidence, raising the question of whether such sources should be trusted.

Example of Intuition: Friend Lying

Folk psychology encompasses the intuitive beliefs and commonsense notions people naturally develop about human behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Although some of these everyday assumptions are reasonably accurate, scientific research demonstrates that many intuitive beliefs are incorrect, highlighting the necessity of a formal scientific approach to psychology.

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