Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) separate proteins based on their size when treated with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). This denatures the proteins and makes them negatively charged. The proteins can then be visualized by staining methods.

Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis

University of Wisconsin - Madison

Proteins are macromolecules that are composed of subunits called amino acids When the number of amino acids linked together becomes very large, or when multiple polypeptides are used as building subunits,

Proteins

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Microbiology covers the scope and sequence requirements for a single-semester microbiology course for non-majors. The book presents the core concepts of microbiology with a focus on applications for careers in allied health. The pedagogical features of the text make the material interesting and accessible while maintaining the career-application focus and scientific rigor inherent in the subject matter. Microbiology’s art program enhances students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs.

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OpenStax Microbiology Textbook

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts, meaning they can increase the rate of a reaction without being consumed.  

Enzymes

Protein Degradation

Amino acids make up every protein. There are 20 total amino acids each with a unique side-chain group. Some additional amino acids are listed, but only 20 are coded from DNA directly. These side-chains allow for chemical interactions like sulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds. Amino acids are further divided by being non-polar, polar, and charged. They link together with a peptide bond making a string of amino acids a polypeptide. Finally, each amino acids is assigned a name, a three-letter symbol and a one-letter symbol. 


Amino Acids are involved in many systems and issues with its breakdown can cause diseases: 
- In the liver: major site of urea production in the urea cycle
- Alpha-keto acids can deliver amino groups to the liver 
- Ammonium is toxic: lethargy, headache, vomiting, seizures, death
- Seen in compromised liver


Amino Acids

- Defense protein are also known as immunoglobins (Ig) 
- Antibodies are produced by the B lymphocytes which are in the bone marrow cells. 
- Involved in humoral immunity (fluid). 
- Structurally diverse proteins

Defense Proteins (Antibodies)

An amino acid is an organic molecule in which a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, and an amino group (–NH2) are all bonded to the same alpha carbon with the side chain at the end. They can form peptide bonds. Some amino acid groups can be specifiedby the number of amino acids designated such as ooligopeptideswhich can join up to 20 amino acids and polypeptides which can join up to 50 amino acids. 

Amino Acids 

The size (length) and specific amino acid sequence of a protein are major determinants of its shape, and the shape of a protein is critical to its function. Protein structure is categorized in terms of four levels:
- Primary Structure
- Secondary Structure
- Tertiary Structure
- Quaternary Structure

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