Patterson’s study examined the relationship between discipline, monitoring, positive reinforcement and three child measures related to competence: academic skills, peer relations, and self-esteem. Discipline was found to be the strongest predictor of academic skills and peer relations over self-esteem.

Child Measures related to Competence 

Between toddler and adolescence, ineffective parental discipline and a lack of positive reinforcement during this period causes otherwise competent children to engage in antisocial, coercive interactions with their parents.

Effects of Ineffective Parental Discipline

Strong correlation with hyperactivity and antisocial behavior. However, the relationship between the two is mediated by parental discipline practices.

Arizona State University

Patterson (1982, as cited in Kramer, 2013) argued that parental behavior alters the probability of child responses. Differences in family interactions of nonaggressive and aggressive children were found that aggressive children were twice as likely as nonaggressive children to persist in behavior following parental punishment.  Parent-child interaction is reciprocal and “teach” each other behaviors that lead to child aggression.  


Parent-Child Interaction Patterns

Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. J. (Eds.). (2002). Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention. American Psychological Association.

Reference: Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents (2002)

Shermerhorn, Chow & Cummings  (2010, as cited in Kramer, 2013) described that when parental conflict effect children and adolescents, there is an increase emotional and behavioral problems. Additionally, during high levels of negative exchange, the children tend to blame themselves for their parent’s conflicts and feel emotionally insecure.


Inter-parental Conflict

Parent training worked better for younger than older children from. The understanding of the importance of intervening early in the developmental cycle, childhood to middle adolescence.

Importance of Parent Training

Hyperactive & Antisocial Behaviors, in Preschoolers

10-18 months
- Unresponsive Mother & Irritable Infant

24-32 Months
- Child is coercive & unskilled & Ineffective parenting and discipline, ineffective teaching, uninvolved parenting

48 Months
- Labelled “Hyperactive”

72 Months 
- Labeled “Antisocial” & Parents are antisocial

Progression Model

Parent Discipline

Parental beliefs, values, norms, standards, attitudes about parenting are directly related to child outcomes. 

Consequently, failures in parenting such as parental rejection, parental depression, parental anger, parental low self-esteem, negative perceptions of the child are directly related to child deviant outcomes.

Parental Beliefs

Inadequate discipline and poor parental monitoring are key factors in the antisocial behavior. Discipline and the use of positive reinforcement play a central role in the development of a child’s competence.

Role in Coercion Theory

Fear tendencies for children and adolescents 

- Children ages 2-4, imaginary creatures and the dark
- Children ages 5-7, natural disasters, injury, animals
- Children ages 8-11, poor academic and athletic performance
- Adolescents 12-18, peer rejection



Developmental Considerations for Clinical Child Psychology

Beginning as early as 1 year old, the child’s ability to pick up emotional cues from others in their environment.

Social Referencing in Children

Insecure-Ambivalent - No interest in exploration, ineffective in receiving comfort from caregiver when angry or resists contact from them.

Insecure-Avoidant - Explores but does not seek affection when reunited with parent.

Secure - explore freely when parent is present. Looks to parent for emotional cues during signs of distress.


Insecure-Avoidant, Insecure Ambivalent, & Secure Attachment Descriptions

Parenting style greatly effects the impact of children’s ability to interact in their social environment in interpreting and gaining guidance in social cues. The variability in a parent’s consistency to show up and teach their kids how to problem solving will instill early patterns of behavior in the child that will influence a child’s achievement and interpersonal relations. 

Parental involvement

Social contextual factors had the greatest influence on the development of competence in toddlers. There was a greater effect in correlation when analyzing parental teaching style, social referencing, and attachment style in the development of child’s competence.                                                         

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