Birmingham, L., Coulson, D., Mullee, M., Kamal, M., & Gregoire, A. (2006). The mental health of women in prison mother and baby units. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 17(3), 393–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940600738442

Mental Health of Pregnant Women in Prison Reference

Boston College

Postpartum depression can occur directly after childbirth due to a combination of hormones that can induce depression. 1 in 5-8 women experience postpartum depression symptoms.

Postpartum Depression

- Evidence that prenatal exposure to SSRIs may affect the child's behavior later on in life (Oberlander et al., 2010)
- CBT is the best treatment option for postpartum depression

Treatments for Postpartum Depression

Reference for Stigma against Women with post-partum psychological disorders

The question was whether or not women with postpartum psychological disorders encounter stigma. 

Summary for Stigma against Women with post-partum psychological disorders.

What is Peripartum Depression (formerly Postpartum)? (n.d.). https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/peripartum-depression/what-is-peripartum-depression

peripartum depression reference

Refers to depression that occurs during pregnancy and after childbirth.
Roughly 1 in 7 women experiences peripartum depression.

Peripartum Depression

Langan, R. C., & J. Goodbred, A. (2016, May 15). Identification and management of peripartum Depression. AAFP. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2016/0515/p852.html

reference for identification and management of peripartum depression

Some examples of postpartum depression symptoms include, but are not limited to:
* An inability to regulate mood 
* Extreme fixation with the infant's health
* Feelings of worthlessness and guilt
* Abnormal appetite and eating habits
* Postpartum psychosis

Common Symptoms of Postpartum Depression

Potential underlying etiologies include hormonal changes, genetic predisposition, and stressors. The exact cause of PPD is unknown, however. Depressive episodes in susceptible people may be triggered by the rapid drop in estrogen and progesterone levels combined with stress/sleep deprivation that accompanies taking care of a newborn. Other factors include changes in the metabolic pathway.

Etiology of Post-Partum Depression

Reference for Etiology of Post-Partum Depression

The prevalence of PPD is considered to be 10-15%, however most studies on PPD have been conducted in WEIRD countries, so a study was conducted to see if non-WEIRD countries showcase a similar rate of PPD. There was found to be a wide range of PPD worldwide, with some countries reporting very few cases(Singapore, Malaysia, Denmark) and some reporting a high prevalence(Brazil, Chile, Taiwan). The range was 0=60% percent prevalence. So, it was concluded that the 10-15% prevalence rate may not be entirely representative of the true world-wide prevalence and needs to be examined further using more cross-culturally appropriate methods. 

Post-Partum Depression Prevalence Cross-Culturally

Reference for Post Partum Depression Prevalence Cross-Culturally

A study was conducted in a prison in England to determine the social and demographic context, prevalence of mental health disorders, and psychiatric treatment need of pregnant women in prison/women who have given birth in prison. Most of the population of women in this prison were married or co-habiting prior to their arrest. Many were from ethnic minorities and serving time for drug offenses. According to the lackluster innmate medical records, only three were qualified to receive treatment for mental health issues. It was found that these inmate medical records were a poor source of mental health information because most of these pregnant women in prison were struggling with severe depression and needed treatment. So, better mental health records and treatment needs to be available to pregnant women in prisons because untreated depression could negatively affect both the mother and the fetus. 

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