- It was found that presenting a non-probative photo to participants influenced them to believe that they had performed a certain action (i.e. they responded "true" to a claim such as "I gave food to the monkey"), even if they had not.
- This demonstrates that even a little exposure to non-probative pictures can lead to bias and, subsequently, mistakes in memory.

Johns Hopkins University

Cardwell, Henkel, Garry, Newman, & Foster (2016) presented a non-probative photo to participants alongside claims regarding actions that participants had performed in a simulated zoo game.

Evidence for the Truthiness Effect: The Memory for Actions Task Experiment

Newman, E. J., & Zhang, L. (2020). Truthiness: How non-probative photos shape belief. In R. Greifeneder, M. Jaffé, E. J. Newman, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), The psychology of fake news: Accepting, sharing, and correcting misinformation (pp. 90–114). London: Routledge. 

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