Finkelhor (2011, as cited in Kramer, 2013) discusses between 5-25% of children and adolescents in the U.S. are physically abused by parental aggression showing broken bones, head injuries and permanent physical scars. Spanking with a belt is also considered physical abuse. 46.9% of child clinical populations receiving mental health were victims of abuse in 2003.

Child Physical Abuse 

Accurate data is difficult to obtain as many go unreported. However, Pereda, Guilera, Forns, o& Fomez-Benito’s (2006, as cited in Kramer, 2013) study revealed in 65 scholarly articles and 22 countries, 19.7% of women and 7.9% of men had been victims of sexual abuse before 18 years old. Additionally, Wekerle, MacMillan, Leung, & Jamieson’s (2008, as cited in Kramer, 2013) study showed that in the U.S. 25.3% for women and 7.5% men where 75%-90% of cases involved a perpetrator who is a family member or known to the family as in a neighbor, caretaker, coach, or family friend.

Child Sexual Abuse 

Based off the Children’s defend fund (2011, as cited in Kramer, 2013) 21.6% of all U.S. children under 18 grow up in poverty. Living in poverty includes housing instability, chaotic family environments, poorer water quality, fewer parks, increased community violence, and maladaptive peer groups.


Child Poverty

Table 11.2 Examples of Risk Factors for the Development of Psychological Problems in Children

Risk Factors Within the Child
- Difficult temperament 
- Inadequate coping mechanisms
- Limited problem-solving skills

Risk Factors Within the Family
- Parental psychopathology 
- Inter-parental conflict
- Harsh parenting
- Child abuse (physical, sexual, psychological, neglect)

Risk Factors within the community
- Poverty
- Inadequate schools
- Violent neighborhoods
- Inadequate opportunities for employment

Risk Factors within the Culture and Society
- Culture of violence
- Racial discrimination-

Arizona State University

Fear tendencies for children and adolescents 

- Children ages 2-4, imaginary creatures and the dark
- Children ages 5-7, natural disasters, injury, animals
- Children ages 8-11, poor academic and athletic performance
- Adolescents 12-18, peer rejection



Developmental Considerations for Clinical Child Psychology

Kramer, G. P., Bernstein, D. A., & Phares, V. (2013). Introduction to clinical psychology (8th ed.). Pearson. 


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