Robert Williams was among those who identified and called out racial bias in the controversial results of educational psychologist Arthur Jensen, who had concluded from IQ testing that intelligence is determined by genetics and that Level II intelligence (conceptual and analytical abilities) differs among ethnic groups.

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In a 1969 article for the Harvard Educational Review, educational psychologist Arthur Jensen proposed a theory that intelligence is largely determined by genetics and consists of two types of abilities. Level I ability, responsible for rote memorization, was seen as consistent across all humans. Level II ability, encompassing conceptual and analytical skills, was argued to differ among ethnic groups. Jensen controversially concluded that Level II intelligence was most prevalent in Asians, followed by White people, and then Black people.

Arthur Jensen's Two-Level Theory of Intelligence

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

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