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Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a condition where an individual experiences a collection of persistent symptoms following a traumatic or profoundly stressful event, such as combat, sexual assault, or a natural disaster. For a diagnosis, these symptoms must last for at least one month. The traumatic event can be witnessed firsthand or secondhand. Historically, PTSD was referred to by terms like 'shell shock' and 'combat neurosis' due to its frequent association with war, but it is now recognized as affecting a wider population.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

To many, the COVID-19 pandemic was a traumatic life event. As such, it is possible that individuals may experience PTSD symptoms after experiencing the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Development of PTSD

Complex PTSD is a disorder resulting from prolonged trauma such as childhood abuse or neglect, abusive relationships, or political imprisonment or torture. C-PTSD includes some or all of the criteria of PTSD, as well as additional symptoms that negatively affect ones quality of life and is typically more severe and treatment resistant than classical PTSD.

Complex Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (c-PTSD)

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) has been used amongst individuals with diagnosed PTSD after Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) with the intent to improve mood processes, PTSD specific outcomes and related symptoms, ACT outcomes, and overall quality of life

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Used with Individuals with PTSD after Traumatic Brain Injury

- acute stress disorder
- Adjustment disorder
- Disinhibited social engagement disorder
- Reactive attachment disorder

Related Conditions to PTSD

There are mixed findings for the role of oxytocin in psychological disorders such as autism spectrum disorder, PTSD, and social anxiety disorder. Hoge et al (2008) found a positive correlation between anxiety and plasma oxytocin levels, while Schneider et al (2021) found that high basal oxytocin predicted less anxiety. Hoge et al hypothesize that oxytocin in individuals with anxiety may increase to compensate for dysfunctional oxytocin receptors.

Oxytocin and psychopathology

In this study, researchers explored the implementation of the online platform VetChange as a way to decrease Iraq and Afghanistan veterans' alcohol use and PTSD symptoms . 

Impact of Web-Based Interventions on Veterans' Alcohol Use & PTSD Symptoms 

In 2021 the FDA approved the use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) for the treatment of PTSD. The compound was studied as a treatment as studies suggest it acts by binding to the presynaptic serotonin transporters inducing a release of serotonin. The trials conducted administered three doses of MDMA paired with manualized therapy during an eighteen-week treatment plan. The results of the study showed significantly reduced symptoms of depression as well as regulated amygdalar serotonergic function in comparison to the control (placebo) group. Each study conducted showed similar results which led to the approval for the regulated use of MDMA to treat PTSD symptoms.

Treatment of PTSD using MDMA (Ecstasy)

Populations exposed to major natural disasters, a form of mass trauma, often show elevated rates of PTSD. For example, research conducted one year after Hurricane Katrina found that nearly 21% of residents in the affected areas suffered from the disorder.

PTSD Prevalence Following Natural Disasters

Throughout much of the 20th century, the condition now known as Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was referred to by other names, such as 'shell shock' and 'combat neurosis'. These terms originated from the belief that the symptoms were a direct result of the stress experienced during active combat.

Historical Terminology for PTSD

Experiencing a traumatic event does not automatically lead to the development of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The likelihood of developing the disorder is influenced by a variety of identified risk factors, explaining why some individuals are more vulnerable than others after a similar experience.

Risk Factors for PTSD Development

The symptoms of PTSD form a constellation of responses to a traumatic event. Key symptoms include re-experiencing the trauma through intrusive and distressing memories or flashbacks. Individuals often engage in avoidance of stimuli or situations connected to the event. They may also experience persistently negative emotional states, feel detached from others, exhibit irritability and proneness to outbursts, and have a tendency to be easily startled.

Symptoms of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Several months after being involved in a serious car accident, an individual reports experiencing recurrent nightmares about the crash, actively avoids driving or even being a passenger in a car, and becomes intensely distressed and jumpy at the sound of screeching tires. Based on this pattern of symptoms, which of the following provides the most accurate psychological explanation for their condition?

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