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While quasi-experimental research manipulates an independent variable before measuring a dependent variable, it still cannot definitively establish cause-and-effect relationships. The absence of random assignment or counterbalancing means researchers cannot confidently rule out confounding variables—pre-existing differences between conditions—as the true cause of any observed outcomes.

Causal Limitations of Quasi-Experimental Research

A researcher observes that children who attend a private preschool have higher reading scores in first grade than children who attend a public preschool. The researcher concludes that attending private preschool causes an increase in reading ability. Which statement provides the most accurate critique of this conclusion?

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