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A 1976 study by Middlemist, Knowles, and Matter on 'personal space' in a public men's room serves as a prime example of an ambiguous and unavoidable ethical conflict in psychological research. Researchers secretly observed men at urinals to measure the effect of a nearby confederate on urination onset time. While critics argued the deceptive observation was an unjustified assault on human dignity and privacy, the researchers defended the study, arguing they had carefully weighed the tradeoffs and found through preliminary interviews that participants were not bothered by the observation. This case illustrates how competent, well-meaning researchers can strongly disagree on how to resolve ethical dilemmas.

Middlemist's Personal Space Study

What was the primary method used by researchers in Middlemist, Knowles, and Matter's 1976 study on 'personal space' that led to ethical criticisms regarding privacy?

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