The concept of optimal arousal is visually represented by a line graph plotting 'performance quality' on the y-axis against 'arousal level' on the x-axis. The single curve is at its lowest point when both arousal and performance are low, indicating boredom or apathy. The curve peaks at an optimal level when both arousal and performance are medium. Finally, the curve drops to a low point when arousal is high and performance is low, indicating a state of high anxiety.

Graphical Representation of Optimal Arousal

Motivation leads to action. However, the quality of the action can vary depending on arousal. Arousal (stress, anxiety, stimulation) affects task performance. Task performance increases with level of arousal but only up to a point, at which performance decreases.

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Key theories and methods related to motivation include:
- Instinct Theory
- Drive Reduction Theory
- Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
- Self-Efficacy
- Social Motives
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- Expectancy-Valence Theories
- Incentive Theory
- Yerkes-Dodson Law
- Temporal Motivation Theory
- Remembered Success Effect
- Procrastination
- Gamification
- Game Based Learning

Theories and Methods of Motivation

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

A theory of human motivation that posits that the reasons why an individual chooses to participate and exerts effort, are based on self-determined regulations (such as intrinsic motivation). It states there are 3 desires that promote optimal function and growth:
- 1) Autonomy
- 2) Competence
- 3) Relatedness

Self-determination theory (SDT)

People behave based on the value that they perceive doing the behavior has to them. It takes into account expectancy (effort), instrumentality (performance) and valence (value/reward).

Expectancy-Valence Theories

Behavior results from a drive to transform an undesirable state to a desirable one

Drive Reduction Theory

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a well-known humanistic theory of motivation which proposes that human beings share certain common needs. These needs are structured hierarchically and must be met in a specific order, typically starting from fundamental lower-level needs before progressing to higher-level needs.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Behavior is motivated by an organisms's desire for reinforcements and rewards and that this desire is what governs behavior
- Positive incentives: Increase Pleasure
- Negative Incentives: Remove Pain

Incentive Theory

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) explains the behavior of procrastination by providing a quasi-mathematical framework, by examining the underlying behavioral components that contribute to (or combat) procrastination. The five components are:
- Value: the tangible and intangible rewards that an individual would receive from completing a task.
- Expectancy: the individual's belief and self-confidence in completing said task.
- Delay: the the period of time an individual needs to wait before receiving the reward from completing said task.
- Sensitivity to delay: the willingness of an individual to tolerate longer delays.
- Utility: the likeness for the individual to perform said task.

Temporal Motivation Theory

This effect pertains to how students' memories and evaluation of prior challenging experiences impact their motivation to engage with similar challenging experiences in the future. Research has shown that after taking both a longer and shorter difficult math test, students prefer and will choose to repeat the longer test if it included a number of only moderately difficult problems that students could answer successfully. This pattern of preferences is known as the "remembered success effect".

Remembered Success Effect

Pulling from the Latin roots "*pro*" (meaning forward, forth, in favor of) and "*crastinus*" (of tomorrow), procrastination is an irrational, but voluntary decision to delay an intended behavior or task.
- *Irrationality* is defined as "... choosing course of action[,] despite expecting that it will not maximize your utilities..."
- *Intended* is defined as something that one wants to interact with; the avoidance of random or irrelevant tasks would not be considered procrastination.

Procrastination

- A method of learning where students are motivated to learn while playing a game.
   - I.e., playing a game for learning.

Game Based Learning

Self-efficacy is an individual’s subjective perception of his or her capability to perform in a given setting or to attain desired results, proposed by Albert Bandura as a primary determinant of emotional and motivational states and behavioral change.

Self-Efficacy

Social motives are a category of motivational theories which propose that behavior is driven by social needs, such as the need for affiliation, achievement, and power within a group context.

Social Motives as a Theory of Motivation

From a biological perspective, an instinct is a species-specific, unlearned pattern of behavior. These are complex, innate behaviors often triggered by events like maturation or seasonal changes. Unlike simple reflexes, instincts typically involve the entire organism, such as in migration or mating, and are controlled by higher brain centers.

Instinct (Definition)

A technology company introduces a high-stakes reward system for its programmers to increase their output. Programmers earn significant bonuses for the number of coding tasks completed each week. While the quantity of completed tasks increases, management observes a sharp decline in the creativity and quality of the code, along with a rise in employee-reported stress. Which of the following principles provides the most direct explanation for this decline in performance quality?

Motivational theories can be categorized based on their primary focus. These categories include biologically-oriented theories that address instincts and homeostasis, cognitive approaches such as Bandura's concept of self-efficacy, theories centered on social motives, and hierarchical models like Maslow's hierarchy of needs which organizes various motives.

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