Comparison of Experimental and Non-Experimental Factorial Designs

Example of Causal Limitations in a Non-Experimental Factorial Design

In a 2 x 2 factorial study predicting behavior based on measured mood (positive vs. negative) and self-esteem (high vs. low), why can't the researchers establish a causal relationship?

In a study predicting individuals' willingness to have unprotected sex based on their measured mood (positive vs. negative) and measured self-esteem (high vs. low), match each element of the study to its correct methodological description.

A psychologist conducts a 2 x 2 factorial study to investigate how measured optimism (high vs. low) and measured sleep quality (good vs. poor) relate to cognitive performance. If the results show a significant difference in performance scores, the psychologist can safely conclude that the participants' level of optimism caused the change in their performance.

Arrange the steps in the logical analysis of a research design that evaluates the relationship between participants' measured mood (positive vs. negative) and measured self-esteem (high vs. low).

In the hypothetical study provided as an example of a $2 \times 2$ non-experimental factorial design, which two variables serve as the non-manipulated factors?

Based on the research example involving measured mood and self-esteem, arrange these design components in order from the most general organizational structure to the most specific experimental element.

A researcher reviews a study that utilizes a $2 \times 2$ factorial design to examine how measured mood and measured self-esteem relate to individuals' willingness to engage in unprotected sex. In evaluating the scientific merit of the conclusion that 'negative mood causes riskier behavior,' a critic would argue that the study lacks the _____ of independent variables required to establish a causal relationship.

A researcher designs a study on mood and academic motivation. She randomly assigns half of the participants to watch an uplifting video clip (positive mood condition) and the other half to watch a neutral clip (neutral mood condition), then measures each participant's pre-existing self-esteem level to create a $2 \times 2$ design. This study is best classified as a fully non-experimental factorial design, just like the hypothetical mood × self-esteem willingness study in which neither variable is manipulated.

In the hypothetical $2 \times 2$ factorial study predicting willingness to have unprotected sex from participants' measured mood (positive vs. negative) and self-esteem (high vs. low), match each specific feature of the study to the methodological concept it best illustrates.

A public health researcher reads the hypothetical $2 \times 2$ factorial study on mood, self-esteem, and willingness to engage in unprotected sex, then concludes that mood is a proven causal risk factor and proposes mood-based intervention programs. A peer reviewer argues this conclusion is unjustified because the non-experimental design cannot rule out _____ variables — unmeasured factors that could independently influence both participants' mood and their willingness — as alternative explanations for the observed association.