The following variables were found to have unexpected effects on student GPA according to Massey and Probasco:

• Choice of major, institutional selectivity, self esteem/efficacy, and foreign birth has little effect on GPA.
• Parental education is strongly positively associated with performance, but drops off sharply after the first year.
• Seeking help from the institution is associated with lower grades, though this is suspected to be the other way around; students struggling academically are more likely to seek aid.
• Participation in academic extracurricular groups is associated with better grades, while participation in frats, sororities and race-related groups is associated with lower grades.
• Negative race-related experiences is associated with lower grades.