Elmore S. (2007). Apoptosis: a review of programmed cell death. Toxicologic pathology, 35(4), 495–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926230701320337

Boston University

Apoptosis is referred to as programmed cell death that can be used to eliminate unwanted cells. It plays a significant factor in preventing cancer or during development, for example, however it can have negative impact as well, especially regarding neurodegenerative diseases.

Apoptosis

Apoptosis Mechanism 

Various morphological features have been identified that occurs during apoptosis. Some features include:
- Cell shrinkage
- Organelles packed tightly
- Pyknoisis
- Extensive plasma membrane "blebbing"

Apoptosis Morphology

Various highly complex and sophisticated mechanisms of apoptosis have been identified, but two main pathways include 1) extrinsic (death receptor pathway) and 2) intrinsic (mitochondrial pathway). The extrinsic pathway is initiated when a ligand binds to a receptor in the membrane and sends signals downstream to initiate apoptosis. The intrinsic pathway is initiated when changes are detected within the mitochondria and it signals a cascade effect of caspase activation. While the two apoptotic pathways seem distinct, recent evidence suggest that the two pathways may be linked and can influence one another.

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