- Bilinguals speak slower in their native language than monolingual speakers of the same language.
- Bilinguals produce less verbal fluency.
- Bilinguals have more tip-of-the-tongue experiences.
- Bilingual children have a smaller vocabulary.
- There are fewer chances to use L2.
- Two languages are always competing.
- At a young age, the benefits may not seem advantageous, and the consequences are more apparent.

Rutgers University

- Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages actively.
- Evidence from language processing suggests that both languages for bilinguals are always active and clashing.
   - Most bilinguals are proficient in one language than the other language.
   As a result, it is claimed that there needs to be a weaker language to be proficient in one language.

Bilingualism

Bjork RA, Kroll JF. Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning. Am J Psychol. 2015 Summer;128(2):241-52.

Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning

- Bilingualism has large media coverage of its benefits from aging to detecting Alzheimer’s.
   - t is hypothesized that bilingualism gives the brain a mental workout as both languages are always active, even if one is not used.
- On the surface of bilingualism, cross-language activation and being proficient for L2 is difficult, but some benefits might not be obviously desirable across one’s life span.

Advantages of Bilingualism

Disadvantages of Bilingualism

Ramirez, R., Huang, B.H., Palomin, A., & McCarty, L (2021). Teachers and language outcomes for young bilinguals: A scoping review. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 52, 755-768. 

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