- Bilingualism has large media coverage of its benefits from aging to detecting Alzheimer’s.
   - t is hypothesized that bilingualism gives the brain a mental workout as both languages are always active, even if one is not used.
- On the surface of bilingualism, cross-language activation and being proficient for L2 is difficult, but some benefits might not be obviously desirable across one’s life span.

Advantages of Bilingualism

- Bilinguals speak slower in their native language than monolingual speakers of the same language.
- Bilinguals produce less verbal fluency.
- Bilinguals have more tip-of-the-tongue experiences.
- Bilingual children have a smaller vocabulary.
- There are fewer chances to use L2.
- Two languages are always competing.
- At a young age, the benefits may not seem advantageous, and the consequences are more apparent.

Disadvantages of Bilingualism

Ramirez, R., Huang, B.H., Palomin, A., & McCarty, L (2021). Teachers and language outcomes for young bilinguals: A scoping review. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 52, 755-768. 

Teachers and language outcomes for young bilinguals: A scoping review. 

- Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages actively.
- Evidence from language processing suggests that both languages for bilinguals are always active and clashing.
   - Most bilinguals are proficient in one language than the other language.
   As a result, it is claimed that there needs to be a weaker language to be proficient in one language.

Rutgers University

Google

- The article discusses desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning as:
   - Learning that creates difficulty at first but later retention and transfer of what is learned are benefited.
   - Difficulties that are related to intrinsic motivation, engagement, and understanding. 
- The article also touches upon evidence of benefits from having difficulties in learning and the consequences for second-language learning. 

Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning

Bjork RA, Kroll JF. Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning. Am J Psychol. 2015 Summer;128(2):241-52.

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

- Both results show that more difficult processes are beneficial later on.
   - Schneider et al. (2002)
   - Kroll and Stewart (1994)

Two Experiments on Contextual Inference for Desirable Difficulties

- Information is more retrievable in a test after studying, but the information is more retrievable if presented in a test again for restudying. Testing alone is beneficial, but with restudying, retrieval is more prominent. 
   - Restudying strengthens all information that is to be remembered, while testing strengthens information that is retrieved. Hence, there feels to be a big advantage of restudying over testing when measuring retention.
   - Restudying is more apparent during the learning process, while testing becomes apparent after a delay.

The Role of Testing and Restudying

- Using testing for vocabulary learning, errors are made, and they can be used for learning. 
   - For attempts to predict answers or associations.
   - Advance learning, not impair learning.
   - Making erroneous predictions lead to better results on the final test (better later recall of translation).

Error and Errorless Learning

- Asymmetries in bilingual translation means that it is easier/faster to translate into one language than the other language.

Learn Before

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