- Native English speakers studying translation pairs: English to French or French to English.
- Day 1: If given French cues, the participants must give the English translation (French to English). The opposite for English to French.
- Results: French to English did better on the test given right after Day 1 trials.
   - It is easier to encode new information (French) and apply it to existing knowledge (English) than producing a new word (French) with a known word (English).
- Week Later: Found benefits in English to French (more difficult) as participants performed better on the delayed test.

Schneider et al. (2002) Study on Contextual Processing

- Dutch-English bilinguals translated from one language to another with words.
- The researchers found a shorter delay for bilinguals to translate their second language (L2) to their first language (L1).
   - L2 to L1 → not influenced by the meaning of the words.
- When not translating, the bilinguals were slower in naming words in L2 than L1.
   - L1 to L2 was slower due to semantic blocking, while L2 to L1 was faster due to interleaving.
- At the end of the experiment, there was a recall task, and the researchers found significance in L1 to L2 (effects of semantic blocking).
- Results show that the more difficult processing was beneficial later on.

Kroll and Stewart (1994) Study on Contextual Processing

- Both results show that more difficult processes are beneficial later on.
   - Schneider et al. (2002)
   - Kroll and Stewart (1994)

Rutgers University

- The article discusses desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning as:
   - Learning that creates difficulty at first but later retention and transfer of what is learned are benefited.
   - Difficulties that are related to intrinsic motivation, engagement, and understanding. 
- The article also touches upon evidence of benefits from having difficulties in learning and the consequences for second-language learning. 

Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning

Bjork RA, Kroll JF. Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning. Am J Psychol. 2015 Summer;128(2):241-52.

Two Experiments on Contextual Inference for Desirable Difficulties

- Information is more retrievable in a test after studying, but the information is more retrievable if presented in a test again for restudying. Testing alone is beneficial, but with restudying, retrieval is more prominent. 
   - Restudying strengthens all information that is to be remembered, while testing strengthens information that is retrieved. Hence, there feels to be a big advantage of restudying over testing when measuring retention.
   - Restudying is more apparent during the learning process, while testing becomes apparent after a delay.

The Role of Testing and Restudying

- Using testing for vocabulary learning, errors are made, and they can be used for learning. 
   - For attempts to predict answers or associations.
   - Advance learning, not impair learning.
   - Making erroneous predictions lead to better results on the final test (better later recall of translation).

Error and Errorless Learning

- Asymmetries in bilingual translation means that it is easier/faster to translate into one language than the other language.

Asymmetries in Bilingual Translation

- Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages actively.
- Evidence from language processing suggests that both languages for bilinguals are always active and clashing.
   - Most bilinguals are proficient in one language than the other language.
   As a result, it is claimed that there needs to be a weaker language to be proficient in one language.

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