- Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM) explains asymmetries in bilingual translation.
- When learning L2, the new words are attached to their L1 translations.
   - L2 to L1 is theorized to be dictionary connected. Therefore, L1 to L2 translations would be more rapid. But it is hypothesized that the definition of a word and the word itself in L2 is slow and more likely for errors to occur in learning because there are limited words known in L2, which will weaken the association.
- RHM has been tested and debated, but for now, it does explain why it is more difficult for learners and bilinguals to translate/producing a new/weaker language (ex: L2). Still, it produces greater benefits for later memory.
   - I.e., L2 creates a desirable difficulty.

Revised Hierarchical Model

- Asymmetries in bilingual translation means that it is easier/faster to translate into one language than the other language.

Rutgers University

- The article discusses desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning as:
   - Learning that creates difficulty at first but later retention and transfer of what is learned are benefited.
   - Difficulties that are related to intrinsic motivation, engagement, and understanding. 
- The article also touches upon evidence of benefits from having difficulties in learning and the consequences for second-language learning. 

Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning

Bjork RA, Kroll JF. Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning. Am J Psychol. 2015 Summer;128(2):241-52.

- Both results show that more difficult processes are beneficial later on.
   - Schneider et al. (2002)
   - Kroll and Stewart (1994)

Two Experiments on Contextual Inference for Desirable Difficulties

- Information is more retrievable in a test after studying, but the information is more retrievable if presented in a test again for restudying. Testing alone is beneficial, but with restudying, retrieval is more prominent. 
   - Restudying strengthens all information that is to be remembered, while testing strengthens information that is retrieved. Hence, there feels to be a big advantage of restudying over testing when measuring retention.
   - Restudying is more apparent during the learning process, while testing becomes apparent after a delay.

The Role of Testing and Restudying

- Using testing for vocabulary learning, errors are made, and they can be used for learning. 
   - For attempts to predict answers or associations.
   - Advance learning, not impair learning.
   - Making erroneous predictions lead to better results on the final test (better later recall of translation).

Error and Errorless Learning

Asymmetries in Bilingual Translation

- Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages actively.
- Evidence from language processing suggests that both languages for bilinguals are always active and clashing.
   - Most bilinguals are proficient in one language than the other language.
   As a result, it is claimed that there needs to be a weaker language to be proficient in one language.

Learn Before

Related

Learn After