Falsely overstating the prevalence of an issue by emphasizing related instances.

False Amplification

One strategy for spreading disinformation is sowing doubt that a consensus exists on a topic. 

Doubtful Consensus Messaging to Spread Disinformation

A belief that (powerful) others are engaging in conspiratorial behavior (e.g. controlling less powerful others) or attempting to cover up the truth. 

Conspiracy Theories

- Impersonation: Posing as a real person/organization or claiming to be a reputable organization without any credentials. 
- Emotional Content
- Polarization: Using tactics like false amplification to push people to either side of the spectrum.
- Conspiracy
- Discrediting opponents
- Trolling: The act of attempting to elicit a response by baiting.
- Doubtful consensus messaging


University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

University of Delaware

Disinformation is information that is (verifiably) false or misleading that is purposefully spread to misinform the public. 

Disinformation 

van der Linden, S., & Roozenbeek, J. (2021). Psychological Inoculation Against Fake News. In R. Greifeneder, M. E. Jaffé, E. J. Newman, & N. Schwarz, The Psychology of Fake News: Accepting, Sharing, and Correcting Misinformation. Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429295379

Psychological Inoculation Against Fake News

Maertens, R., Anseel, F., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Combatting climate change misinformation: Evidence for longevity of inoculation and consensus messaging effects. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 70, 101455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101455

Combatting climate change misinformation: Evidence for longevity of inoculation and consensus messaging effects

Inoculating someone (in the context of fake news) is an attempt to reduce an individual's susceptibility to accepting fake news by presenting them with misinformation and giving them the tools to recognize it as such. The theory comes directly from an immunological analogy about virus protection; in the psychological sense, inoculation is giving someone a "weakened" version of misleading info, which leads "mental antibodies" formed, making them "immune" to persuasion.

See "How Disinformation is Disseminated"

Inoculation Theory

Disinformation Strategies

Campaigns that paint a certain course of action as being specific to one’s identity. These campaigns emphasize that not taking that certain action threatens one’s identity itself.

Disinformation Campaigns

1. creating the appearance of a culturally relevant “legitimate” question 
2. framing the issue as an identity-based rather than an information-based concern
3. presenting a clear identity-based choice, and framing alternative choices as identity threatening.

Steps Taken for a "Deformer" to  Effectively Provide Disinformation 

According to Guess & Lyons (2020) misinformation and disinformation differ regarding the author's/creater's intent. Misinformation and Disinformation are often difficult to distinguish because it’s difficult to tell whether someone spread wrong information intentionally (Disinformation) or unintentionally (Misinformation). If political misinformation is spread by politicians it's usually considered as disinformation. Also, fake news which are organized and spread by established news organizations are considered disinformation.

Distinction between Misinformation and Disinformation

- Psychological Stress
- Economic Damage
- Sexual Violence 
- Physical Harm 

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