Verifiable beliefs are generally more associated with knowledge motivation, while unverifiable beliefs are more associated with social integration motivation. Both serve ego-defense functions.

The Verifiability Continuum

Predictors of conspiracy theories include the tendency to perceive patterns, uncertainty, and the need to reduce uncertainty.

Predictors of Conspiracy Theories

A means used to measure belief in conspiracies. The GCB is comprised of 15 statements regarding one's belief in conspiratorial plots.

Generic Conspiracist Beliefs scale (GCB)

The term "conspiracy theory" is stigmatized and often used to deflect or dismiss claims as being outrageous. The term is rarely used in refrance to one's own beliefs and is more frequently used to paint opposing beliefs in a negative light.

Negative connotations of the term "Conspiracy Theory"

Although the term "conspiracy theory" often holds a negative connotation, the label may be appealing to some due to the prevalence and romanticization of conspiracy theories in popular media.

Positive connotations of the term "Conspiracy Theory"

A debunked conspiracy theory that emerged during the 2016 US presidential election. The theory states that powerful individuals (particularly Hillary Clinton and other democrat politicians) were holding children captive in a satanic sex-trafficking ring operating out of a D.C. Pizza restaurant. The theory gained enough traction that one individual was arrested for firing shots into the pizza restaurant.

The Pizza Gate Conspiracy

Anthony and Moudling (2019) list the following predictors: social alienation, powerlessness, a dangerous worldview, perceived benevolence of the world (Abalakina-Paap, Stephan, Craig, & Gregory, 1999), schizotypical personality traits (Barron et al., 2014) and political identity (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017; Edelson et al., 2017; Oliver & Wood, 2014).

Predictors for Conspiracist Thinking

In this study, participants watched a conspiracy theory video and afterwards they were presented with one of two types of arguments (a third group was placed in control):
1. Factual anti-conspiracy argument.
2. Logic based anti-conspiracy argument.
Both experimental groups were less likely to believe the conspiracy theory presented in comparison to the control.
Of the two experimental conditions, the factual treatment was more effective. They suspect this is because it easier to understand when false facts are being presented than it is to recognize the issues in logic that might exist.

 Banas and Miller (2013): Types of arguments against conspiracy theories and their effectiveness

In this study, anti-conspiracy information did reduce the belief in the conspiracy, but it did not substantially affect the intentions of the participants to vaccinate their child. 

Jolley and Douglas (2014): The gap between changing beliefs and changing behavior

Participants who viewed conspiracy arguments then had stronger beliefs in the conspiracy theories, and this directly resulted in stronger beliefs of the danger of vaccines and decreased intention to vaccinate a fictional child.

The direct effect of the consumption of conspiracy materials on subsequent behavior

- People were more likely to intend to vaccinate their fictional child only when the anti-conspiracy argument came before the conspiracy, not after.
- People also reported lower beliefs in anti-vaccine conspiracy and were less likely to perceive vaccines to be dangerous in the anti-conspiracy followed by conspiracy condition.
- Once the conspiracy theory is shown first, the anti-conspiracy arguments are not effective at producing any of the above results.

The effect of order of argument presentation in combating conspiracy theories

- Knowledge 
- Ego-defense
- Social Integration

Why People May Believe Conspiracy Theories

Conspiracy beliefs are difficult to dispel because any information contradicting their claim is seen as a lie or a cover-up.

Why conspiracy theories are difficult to disprove

A belief that (powerful) others are engaging in conspiratorial behavior (e.g. controlling less powerful others) or attempting to cover up the truth. 

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Kalamazoo College

Pepperdine University

Rumors, conspiracy theories, satire news, and hoaxes

Examples of Misinformation

- Impersonation: Posing as a real person/organization or claiming to be a reputable organization without any credentials. 
- Emotional Content
- Polarization: Using tactics like false amplification to push people to either side of the spectrum.
- Conspiracy
- Discrediting opponents
- Trolling: The act of attempting to elicit a response by baiting.
- Doubtful consensus messaging


Disinformation Strategies

Albarracín, D. (2020). Conspiracy beliefs: Knowledge, ego-defense, and social integration. In R. Greifeneder, M. Jaffé, E. J. Newman, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), The psychology of fake news: Accepting, sharing, and correcting misinformation (pp. 196–219). London: Routledge. 

Conspiracy beliefs: Knowledge, ego-defense, and social integration

Wood, M.J. (2016). Some dare call it conspiracy: Labeling something a conspiracy theory does not reduce belief in it. Political Psychology, 37(5), 695-705. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12285.

Some Dare Call It Conspiracy: Labeling Something a Conspiracy Theory Does Not Reduce Belief in It

Guess, A. M. & Lyons, B. A. (2020). Misinformation, Disinformation, and Online Propaganda. In Persily, N. & Tucker, J. A. (Eds.), Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, Prospects for Reform (pp. 10-33). Cambridge University Press.

Misinformation, Disinformation, and Online Propaganda

An additional example of misinformation is retracted scientific articles. These articles present flawed information, whether intentionally or not. 

Example of Misinformation: Retracted Scientific Articles

Conspiracy Theories

Falsely overstating the prevalence of an issue by emphasizing related instances.

False Amplification

One strategy for spreading disinformation is sowing doubt that a consensus exists on a topic. 

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