Humans can only learn one or at most two conceptual levels at a time. A person is able to learn the next level of concepts only after they have a stable understanding of the original. From then on, we are able to fine tune our understanding of the lower level concepts, while our learning focus is on the next level of abstraction.

Learning by Conceptual Levels

Readers may translate text into visual information by selecting, organizing and then integrating. Graphical representations such as concept maps, flow diagrams, and tree diagrams can be used to depict the structural and conceptual relationships found in text. By generating diagrams, readers are able to leverage spatial memory to develop a coherent understanding of the text.

Cognitive Theory of Drawing Construction

People behave based on the value that they perceive doing the behavior has to them. It takes into account expectancy (effort), instrumentality (performance) and valence (value/reward).

Expectancy-Valence Theories

Analyzes the effectiveness of passive teaching styles (i.e. lecturing or exams) on student learning. 

Efficacy of Traditional Teaching Methods

A theory of human motivation that posits that the reasons why an individual chooses to participate and exerts effort, are based on self-determined regulations (such as intrinsic motivation). It states there are 3 desires that promote optimal function and growth:
- 1) Autonomy
- 2) Competence
- 3) Relatedness

Self-determination theory (SDT)

The measure and study of sustained interaction with the medium. Engagement is different from Motivation in that it focuses on the user's willingness to continue interacting, rather than what inspires or spurs them into action.

Engagement

Learning analytics (LA) is the idea that datasets acquired through teaching or learning activities can be used to enhance student learning, academic progress, and teaching practices.

Learning Analytics

- MOOCs (massive open online courses)
- Blended Learning
- Online Learning
- Distance Learning
- E-learning

Mode of Education

The intersecting three-presence framework, consisting of Social, Teaching and Cognitive Presences, that represented all the important activities in an educational experience.  

Community of Inquiry Framework

A proposed hierarchy of understanding that can be used to evaluate a student's comprehension of a topic. From the highest level to the lowest level of understanding, they are:
- Creation / Create
- Evaluation / Evaluate
- Analysis / Analyze
- Application / Apply
- Comprehension / Understand
- Knowledge / Remember


Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning

A learning task that requires a considerable but desirable amount of effort, thereby improving long-term performance.

Examples:

- Interleaving Materials
- Spacing Studying
- Generation Effect
- Retrieval practice (testing)
- Varying Study Conditions

Desirable Difficulties

A theory that recognizes the learners' understanding and knowledge based on their own experiences prior to entering school. Rather than simply taking in knowledge, learners take the opportunity to reinforce and build their own understanding of the topic, derived from what they already know and what is being presented to them.

Constructivism (in Education)

The achievement gap is a persistent disparity in academic outcomes, such as grades, test scores, and graduation rates, observed among students from different demographic groups. These groups are often defined by ethnicity, race, and, in certain subjects, gender.

Definition of the Achievement Gap in Education

- Cognitive theory of drawing construction
- Learning by conceptual level
- Expectancy-valence theory
- Self-determination Theory (SDT)
- Modes of learning
- Efficacy of Traditional Teaching Methods
- Constructivism
- Engagement
- Learning Analytics (LA)
- Community of Inquiry Framework (CoI)
- Achievement Gap in Education
- Desirable difficulties

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

San Jose State University

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

University of Georgia

Learning science an interdisciplinary field that works to further our understanding of learning as well as to engage in the design and implementation of learning innovations. Contributing fields include cognitive science, computer science, educational psychology, anthropology, and applied linguistics. 

Learning Science

- "How to Create a Mind" by Ray Kurzweil
- Learning Together: Exploring Group Interactions Online
- Learning Sciences on Wikipedia
- Technology use, self-directed learning, student engagement and academic performance: Examining the interrelations
- texSketch: Active Diagramming through Pen-and-Ink Annotations
- "Why Do We Still Lecture?" by Joseph DiPiro
- "Learning as Biological Brain Change" by Leamnson, R. (2000).
- "Points of View: Lectures: Can't Learn with Them, Can't Learn without Them" by Lodish, Harvey F, & Rodriguez, Roberto K. (2004). 
- "Effectiveness of Integrating MOOCs in Traditional Classrooms for Undergraduate Students" by Israel M. J. (2015)
- Comparison of Rewatching Class Recordings versus Retrieval Practice as
Post-Lecture Learning Strategies
- "Better Than Expected: Using Learning Analytics to Promote Student Success in Gateway Science" by Mary C. Wright, Timothy McKay, Chad Hershock, Kate Miller & Jared Tritz
- Seeking the best blend for deep learning in a flipped classroom – viewing student perceptions through the Community of Inquiry lens (2018)
- "Eye Tracking the Feedback Assigned to Undergraduate Students in a Digital Assessment Game" by Maria Cutumisu, Krystle-Lee Turgeon, Tasbire Saiyera,  Steven Chuong, Lydia Marion González Esparza, Rob MacDonald, and Vasyl Kokhan (2019)
-  "The Matthew effect in empirical data" by Matjazˇ Perc
- "Adaptive Natural-Language Targeting for Student Feedback" by Y. Alex Kolchinski, Sherry Ruan, Dan Schwartz, and Emma Brunskill (2018)
- "The Effect of Choosing Versus Receiving Feedback on College Students' Performance" by Maria Cutumisu and Dan L. Schwartz (2016)
- "Technology matters – the impact of transactional distance on satisfaction in online distance learning." by Weidlich, J., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2018)
- "Sharing instructors experience of learning management system: A technology perspective of user satisfaction in distance learning course" by Almarashdeh, I. (2016)
- "Distance Learning." by Bertel J.M., Pate C.M. (2010)
- "Increasing Reading Comprehension and Engagement Through
Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction" By John T. Guthrie, Allan Wigfield, Pedro Barbosa, Kathleen C. Perencevich, Ana Taboada, Marcia H. Davis,
Nicole T. Scafiddi, and Stephen Tonks (2004)
- "How Do Our Students Learn? An Outline of a Cognitive Psychological Model for Information Literacy Instruction" By Dani B. Cook and Kevin M. Klipfel (2015)
- "Improving online social presence through asynchronous video" by Jered Borup, Charles R. Graham, and Richard E. West (2012)
- "Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies" By Barbara Means, Yukie Toyama, Robert Murphy, Marianne Bakia, and Karla Jones (2009)
- "Attempts, Successes, and Failures of Distance Learning in the Time of COVID-19" by Nicolas Dietrich, Kalyani Kentheswaran, and Aras Ahmadi (et al)
- "Making a First Impression: Exploring What Instructors Do and Say on the First Day of Introductory STEM Courses" by A. Kelly Lane, Ciara L. Meaders, J. Kenny Shuman, MacKenzie R. Stetzer, Erin L. Vinson, Brian A. Couch, Michelle K. Smith, and Marilyne Stains (2020)

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