- In BPD subjects, there was an increased size of largest connected component (LCC).
   - Increased size of LCC indicates a lower number of disconnected nodes in a functional network.
- In BPD subjects, there was increased small-worldness, clustering coefficients, and local efficiency.
   - Small-world systems have the ability for specialized processing to occur within densely interconnected groups of brain regions and also has the ability to combine specialized information from distributed brain regions.
   - Clustering coefficients are defined as the ratio of the number of existing links and the number of all possible links between the direct neighbors of the node.
   - Local efficiency measures how efficiently information is exchanged over the network.
- Increased clustering coefficients and local efficiency indicates greater network "cliquishness" (i.e., more clustered structure).
   - Increased cliquishness seen in limbic and paralimbic brain regions, including the amygdala.
     - Could explain vulnerability to the fast and extreme reaction to a negative stimulus, the emotion being difficult to regulate.
- BPD subjects suggest long-distance functional connections between regions associated with self-referential processes. 
- BPD subjects might also cause an increase in the number of connections to non-hub nodes and a decrease in the number of connections to hub nodes in functional brain networks.
   - An example of a hub node is the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), acting as a literal hub that contributes connections to other networks. 

Differences in topological brain organization in BPD

Cultural neuroscience is an emerging field of research that joins social and biological sciences to explore the influences of culture on brain development. While cultural psychology historically has relied on observational studies and survey methods, neuroscience measures such as ERPs and fMRI enable researchers to study the underlying neural mechanisms responsible for observed behavioral differences across cultures.

Cultural Neuroscience

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an effective tool for analyzing brain functionality. It is capable of tracking the functional response of the brain through Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) contrast. Increased neuronal activity leads to local increase in energy and oxygen consumption. Essentially, the BOLD effect is a contrast caused by the relative decrease in the magnetic field irregularities due to relative increase in the oxyHb level contributed by the blood flowing in the brain region with increased activity.

University of Minnesota - Twin Cities

- Neuroimaging studies have used changes in blood flow or chemistry to examine parts of the brain active while normal adults perform tasks.
- These studies have provided a general picture of where cognitive and emotional processing is carried out by the brain. They give hope of helping us understand how genetics and experience work together to produce the behavior patterns of the adult.
- Neuroimaging studies have examined in the brains of normal adults such processes as perception, working memory, language, spatial attention, attentional selection, arousal, and happy and sad emotional states.

Neuroimaging Studies

- Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- Golgi stain
- Nissl stain
- Optogenetics
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Methods of Brain Mapping

Functional neuroimaging has identified several brain regions and circuits involved in pathological anxiety, such as the amygdala, insula, and prefrontal cortex. Neural dysfunction associated with SAD varies from reduced regional volume to increased or decreased activation and functional connectivity.

The Neural Basis of Social Anxiety Disorder

James, J. S., Rajesh, P. G., Chandran, A. V. S., & Kesavadas, C. (2014). fMRI paradigm designing and post-processing tools. Indian Journal of Radiology and Imaging, 24(1), 13-21. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-3026.130686

fMRI paradigm designed and post-processing tools

Functional MRI

Neuroimaging Studies Library

A neural stain that shows the cell bodies in a particular region. This works by targeting RNA in cell bodies. These are good for measuring cell density and the size of cell bodies. 

Nissl Stain

These types of stains show neurons in detail, revealing dendrites and axons. These are good for showing types and shapes of different neurons. 

Golgi Stain

A documentation of spontaneous gross electrical activity of the brain recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp. The measured electrical activity is not prompted by particular stimuli, and may also be referred to as "brain waves."  

Electroencephalogram (EEG) 

A genetic approach to control the activity of specific neurons by light. Optogenetics generally makes use of the selective expression of opsins, proteins that respond to certain types of light.

Optogenetics

- Amygdala
- Insula
- Prefrontal cortex
- Anterior cingulate cortex

Brain Regions Involved in SAD

Functional connectivity (FC) is defined as the temporal coincidence of spatially distant neurophysiological events, wherein two regions are considered to show functional connectivity if there is a statistical relationship between the measures of activity recorded for them. Extensions of this include both static and dynamic FC.

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