Gross potential changes in the electrical activity of the brain due to a sensory stimulus such as a flashing light. The location of recording, the type of stimulus, and the state of the subject are reflected in the properties of ERPs, such as the wave shape and the latency (i.e., time delay). 
With ERPs, researchers ask participants to do the same task over and over again and they average all the EEGs recorded during those repeated trials. The variation due to random firing averages out. ERP has become the favorite tool of neuroscientists studying moment-to-moment consequences of attention in the brain.

Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)

Ways to use Electroencephalogram in research

Data collection for studies investigating the effects of cognitive reappraisal in children and adolescents involve observational studies, self-report questionnaires, and interviews with multiple informants (i.e. parents, teachers). These methods are subjective in nature and lack generalizability, therefore more objective measures are needed to properly evaluate the benefits of cognitive reappraisal in younger populations. One such measure is to record event-related potentials via electroencephalogram.

Measures of cognitive reappraisal in children and adolescents

A self-regulation therapy that teaches patients how to control their brainwaves (as detected by EEG) by controlling their arousal levels. Some evidence suggests it may help with easing behavioral symptoms caused by head trauma, as well as ADHD and chronic stress.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) Neurofeedback

A documentation of spontaneous gross electrical activity of the brain recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp. The measured electrical activity is not prompted by particular stimuli, and may also be referred to as "brain waves."  

Columbia University

California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Grinnell College

Brandeis University

Michigan State University

An episode where the electrical activity in the brain is synchronized, causing the brain to excite continuously. It is seen in EEGs as a "spike and wave" pattern.

Seizures

- Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- Golgi stain
- Nissl stain
- Optogenetics
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Methods of Brain Mapping

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Epilepsy

A type of seizure where the person loses consciousness and has two types of convulsions. There is a tonic contraction of the muscles where the person stays rigid. Then there are clonic contractions and relaxations where the person is tremoring. A person may feel confused or sleepy following the seizure. 

Tonic-Clonic Seizures

A type of generalized seizure where a person becomes unaware of their surroundings, stops anything they are doing, and sustains staring. They cannot recall events that occurred during the seizure. There are no convulsions. Abnormalities in the gross electrical activity of the brain are evident through characteristic spike-and-wave EEG activity for 5-15 seconds at a time. 

Simple Partial Seizures

A type of seizure where the entire brain is not affected. As a result, many different symptoms can arise. An unusual sensation called an aura usually comes before the symptoms.

Complex Partial Seizures

Electroencephalogram (EEG) 

Kindling is an experimental technique that involves exposing non-human animals to weak, repeated electrical stimulation that over time may generate epileptic seizures. Therefore, kindling (in the form of continued epileptic seizures in human beings) is thought to make tissue more epilepsy-prone. 

Kindling

As NMJ electrophysiology is performed in third instar larvae, the method is not easily applied to longitudinal studies. The giant fiber system (GFS) in adult flies, however, is amenable to in vivo electrophysiology. Electrodes are applied to the eye, stimulating the giant fiber neurons in the brain. The GFS then activates the fly’s “flight” muscles in response to change in light exposure. GFS recordings have been used to study epilepsy and seizures.

Giant-fiber-system Recordings

A neural stain that shows the cell bodies in a particular region. This works by targeting RNA in cell bodies. These are good for measuring cell density and the size of cell bodies. 

Nissl Stain

These types of stains show neurons in detail, revealing dendrites and axons. These are good for showing types and shapes of different neurons. 

Golgi Stain

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an effective tool for analyzing brain functionality. It is capable of tracking the functional response of the brain through Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) contrast. Increased neuronal activity leads to local increase in energy and oxygen consumption. Essentially, the BOLD effect is a contrast caused by the relative decrease in the magnetic field irregularities due to relative increase in the oxyHb level contributed by the blood flowing in the brain region with increased activity.

Functional MRI

A genetic approach to control the activity of specific neurons by light. Optogenetics generally makes use of the selective expression of opsins, proteins that respond to certain types of light.

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