Functional psychology was established by American scholars William James, John Dewey, and Charles Sanders Peirce. Their work was shaped by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, which they used as a framework for understanding an organism's characteristics and behaviors.

Founders of Functional Psychology

Within the framework of functionalism and evolutionary theory, adaptation refers to a trait that serves a specific function for an organism's survival and reproduction. Such traits are believed to have been preserved through the process of natural selection.

Adaptation in Psychology

Functionalism and structuralism differ in their primary focus. Functionalists were concerned with the operation of the mind as a whole and its purpose in helping an organism adapt. In contrast, structuralists focused on breaking down mental processes into their individual component parts.

Comparison between Functionalism and Structuralism

A psychologist observes that the behavior of 'play' is common among the young of many mammal species. If this psychologist is guided by the principles of functionalism, which of the following questions would be the most central to their investigation?

In her theoretical work, Mary Whiton Calkins demonstrated how the distinct psychological frameworks of structuralism and functionalism could both be utilized to understand and explain self-psychology.

Mary Whiton Calkins's Contribution to Self-Psychology

Championed by figures like William James, functionalism is a psychological perspective that investigates how mental activities help an organism adapt to its environment. This school of thought was heavily influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution, proposing that behaviors, like physical traits, are naturally selected because they serve a function for survival and reproduction. Functionalism focuses on the operation of the mind as a whole, rather than breaking it down into its individual components, which was the aim of structuralism.

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Psychology's history is marked by the emergence of several major theoretical perspectives that have shaped the field. These schools of thought offer different ways of understanding the mind and behavior. Key approaches include:
* structuralism
* functionalism
* psychoanalytic theory
* Gestalt psychology
* behaviorism
* humanism
* evolutionary theory

Theoretical Approaches in Psychology

According to the theory of evolution by natural selection, organisms that are better suited for their environments tend to survive and reproduce in contrast to those that are ill-suited to their environments. This theory was co-developed by Charles Darwin.

Theory of Evolution By Natural Selection

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Edward Titchener (1867-1927), a protege of Wilhelm Wundt, integrated structuralism with psychology. This allowed emphasis on the contents of mental processes instead of their functions.

Structuralism in Psychology

Functionalism in Psychology

A psychological perspective, developed by Sigmund Freud, that focuses on the unconscious and early childhood experiences; and how those experiences impact conscious behavior.

Psychoanalytic Theory

As one of the most historically influential schools of thought, behaviorism aimed to establish psychology as an objective science. This approach centered on studying overt, observable behavior while deliberately deemphasizing the significance of unobservable internal mental processes.

Behaviorism

Evolutionary psychology is a field that investigates the ultimate biological causes of behavior by focusing on how universal patterns of cognition and behavior have evolved over time. It operates on the principle that these genetically influenced patterns are adaptations to an organism's physical and social environment, shaped by their contribution to survival and reproductive success.

Evolutionary Psychology

Humanism is a highly influential perspective in psychology that focuses on the growth potential of healthy individuals and their innate capacity for good. Championed by key figures like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, this approach posits that people are driven by a desire for self-actualization. It highlights concepts such as free will and self-determination, asserting that individuals actively strive to become the best version of themselves, which has significantly contributed to the psychological understanding of the self.

Humanism in Psychology

Gestalt psychology is a school of thought based on the core principle that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. The term 'gestalt' translates to 'form' or 'pattern,' reflecting the idea that the brain does not merely combine individual sensory stimuli but actively creates a holistic perception. This process of organizing sensory information into a meaningful whole occurs in predictable ways, which Gestalt psychologists formulated into a set of principles.

Gestalt Psychology

Early psychological schools like structuralism, Freudian psychoanalysis, and Gestalt psychology all shared a common goal: to describe and understand the inner workings of the mind. However, this focus on subjective 'inner experience' was met with skepticism by other researchers who questioned whether it could be studied scientifically. This critique led to a shift in focus towards studying only objectively observable behavior, which was seen as the measurable outcome of mental processes.

Shared Focus on Inner Experience in Early Psychological Schools

In the early part of the 20th century, the field of American psychology was largely shaped by two major schools of thought: behaviorism and psychoanalysis. The widespread influence of these two perspectives set the stage for the emergence of new theories, such as humanism, which developed in response to their perceived limitations.

Dominance of Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis in Early 20th-Century Psychology

A researcher is conducting a study to understand why people are more likely to help a stranger who looks like them. The researcher hypothesizes that this behavior is a modern manifestation of an ancient mechanism that favored helping genetic relatives to ensure the survival of shared genes. This line of reasoning is most characteristic of which theoretical approach?

Evolutionary Biology studies the processes that produced the diversity of life on earth or study of the phylogenetic history of organisms on earth.

Evolutionary Biology

Charles Darwins' influential books on the theory of evolution by natural selection include:

- The Descent of Man (1871)
- The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)

Charles Darwin's Influential Books on the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

The concept of an evolutionary tree, visually representing life's diversification from a common ancestor, was first sketched by Charles Darwin. This diagram, described as lines that split into branched structures, illustrates his principle of 'descent with modification,' showing how species diverge over time, with some lineages thriving and others leading to extinction.

Darwin's First Evolutionary Tree Diagram

Based on the principles of evolution by natural selection, predict the most likely long-term outcome for the finch population described in the case study and explain the reasoning behind your prediction.

Finch Beak Adaptation

Based on the principles of how organisms change over time due to environmental pressures, predict and explain the most likely outcome for the insect population described in the case study below after many generations.

Predicting Population Changes

The adaptive advantage of the sickle-cell mutation is contingent upon the geographic environment. In areas where malaria is widespread, like parts of Africa, possessing a single copy of the sickle-cell mutation is beneficial because it protects the carrier from malaria. Conversely, in regions where malaria is scarce, such as the United States, the sickle-cell gene provides no health benefits. In these environments, the mutation is a liability: carriers with one gene copy may suffer minor health issues, and those with two copies face a severe disease with no offsetting benefits.

Environmental Context of the Sickle-Cell Trait's Adaptiveness

Genetic variation within a population is essential for natural selection to occur. This diversity in genes and traits allows some individuals to be better adapted to environmental changes than others. Consequently, these better-suited individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing their advantageous genes to the next generation. In a genetically identical population, environmental shifts would affect all individuals equally, leaving no basis for selection and adaptation.

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