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Example

Game 1 of the Book of Why: X rightarrow A rightarrow Y and A rightarrow B

In Game 1 of the Book of Why, represented by the causal diagram X rightarrow A rightarrow Y and A rightarrow B, there are no confounders between XX and YY. The variable BB is associated with XX because it is in the X rightarrow A rightarrow B chain, and it is associated with YY because of the open path B leftarrow A rightarrow Y. Although BB is correlated with both XX and YY and is not on the causal path between them (thus passing the classical epidemiological definition of a confounder), BB is not a confounder because it does not causally influence XX.

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Updated 2026-06-13

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Data Science