• In several studies, females have been shown to multitask more than males (Foehr, 2006, Jeong and Fishbein, 2007, Pilotta et al., 2004). Adaptation to dual information processing has been attributed to gender differences in cognitive ability (Stoet, O'Connor, Conner, & Laws, 2013). In contrast, other studies have found no significant differences between females and males in multitasking behavior (e.g., Ellis et al., 2010, Ophir et al., 2009).

• Previous studies examining gender differences in self-efficacy for self-regulated learning have primarily focused on school-age students. However, according to Caprara et al. (2008), a longitudinal study conducted with cohorts ranging from 12 to 22 showed that female students perceived self-regulation efficacy as higher, and the gap grows as students age.