Combining socioeconomic data from the Panel Study on Income Dynamics (PSID) and student achievement data from the Child Development Supplement (CDS), Owens finds that income disparities can exacerbate the achievement gap. In addition, families with low income face different outcomes based race and ethnicity. Using multilevel regression models, Owens comes to the following conclusions:

• The larger the income disparity between families, the larger the gap.
• Low-income white families are less affected by both income disparity and their own income when compared to African American families.
• The more homogenous a district is, the stronger the effect becomes.
• Homogeneity-inducing behaviors, whether intentional or unintentional (redlining, seeking better districts, "white flight"/self-segregation), is likely to translocate income disparities and gaps over to achievement gaps.