(based on follow up studies of individuals conceived and in utero during pandemics, natural disasters and famines)
- lower educational attainment and lifelong earnings
- increased likelihood of obesity, noncommunicable diseases, and mental health problems
- economic downturn: International Monetary Fund projections predict a global economic recession to extend beyond 2021

Michigan State University

- Estimates predict increase in maternal and child mortality in low- and middle-income countries due to non-COVID-19 health care becoming scarce: estimated:
     - drop of 15% in coverage of life-saving essential health interventions for 6 months 
       in low- and middle-income countries is associated
     - 9.8% increase in mortality among children less than 5 years of age 
     - 8.3% increase in maternal mortality.

Long and Short Term Risks of COVID-19 on Childhood Development

Yoshikawa, H., Wuermli, A. J., Britto, P. R., Dreyer, B., Leckman, J. F., Lye, S. J., Ponguta, L. A., Richter, L. M., & Stein, A. (2020). Effects of the Global Coronavirus Disease-2019 Pandemic on Early Childhood Development: Short- and Long-Term Risks and Mitigating Program and Policy Actions. The Journal of pediatrics, 223, 188–193. 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7234941/

Effects of the Global Coronavirus Disease-2019 Pandemic on Early Childhood Development: Short- and Long-Term Risks and Mitigating Program and Policy Actions

- Increase in maternal and child mortality and morbidity bc of critical resources being diverted away from primary care
- In the US, 1/3rd of parents with children younger than age of 6 reported delaying health care visits - risks of delayed healthcare visits: HIV positive pregnant women's schedule of antiretroviral medication being interrupted = infants at risk of vertical HIV transmission
     - loss of caregivers = impacts children's health, nutrition, learning
     - maternal mental health = exposure to prenatal depression affecting DNA 
        methylation in a gene related to the stress response in the child = averse 
        pregnancy outcomes
- Poverty:
      - Pandemic can lead this year to an additional 42 to 66 million children who live in 
         extreme poverty
      - Nutrition, health, and education risks

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