The findings challenge the view of humans as purely altruistic punishers. They support theories proposing mixed strategies for cooperation within the population and highlight the importance of genetic variability in influencing everyday behaviors and decision-making.

University of Minnesota

Aggression intensity and frequency increased as provocation levels were experimentally increased. The experiment involved subjects punishing percieved wrongdoers by administering hot/spicy sauce. 

MAOA gene experiment

McDermott, R.,  Tingley, D., &  Cowden, J. (2009a, February 17). Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation. https://www.pnas.org/ 

Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation

The evidence of the main effects of genotype suggests a genetic influence on aggressive behavior. There is also evidence of a gene-environment interaction; MAOA-L is more predictive of aggression under high provocation than low provocation. 

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