An illustrative example of a non-experimental, correlational study is John Cacioppo and Richard Petty's 1982 research. They validated their Need for Cognition Scale by comparing the scale scores of university professors with those of factory workers. This is not an experiment because the researchers simply measured pre-existing occupational groups rather than manipulating conditions or assigning participants.

Example of Correlational Research: Need for Cognition and Occupation

What does the Need for Cognition Scale primarily evaluate?

The Need for Cognition Scale is a psychological measurement tool developed by John Cacioppo and Richard Petty. It is designed to evaluate the degree to which individuals enjoy, value, and engage in effortful thinking and cognitive activities.

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Psychological measurement is the systematic empirical process of quantifying abstract variables and constructs—such as moods, self-esteem, or behavioral intentions—to facilitate scientific analysis. By utilizing standardized tools and methodologies, researchers can translate intangible psychological characteristics into objective, numerical data that can be rigorously evaluated and studied.

Psychological Measurement

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KPU Research Methods in Psychology - 4th American Edition

In a 2002 empirical study, researchers Tara MacDonald and Alanna Martineau investigated the effect of female university students' moods on their intentions to have unprotected sexual intercourse. They discovered that experiencing a negative mood increased intentions to engage in unprotected sex, but this effect was exclusively observed among students with low self-esteem. Conducting this research required the practical application of psychological measurement to quantify several intangible variables, specifically requiring the researchers to accurately measure each participant's self-esteem, successfully assess their mood after an experimental manipulation (thinking negative thoughts), and gauge their behavioral intentions regarding unprotected sex.

MacDonald and Martineau (2002) Study

An abstract construct, also referred to as an intangible variable, is a psychological characteristic or internal state that cannot be directly observed, such as self-esteem, mood, or a behavioral intention. Because psychological research relies on empirical data, researchers must develop specific methods to transform these intangible concepts into quantifiable variables so they can be measured and studied.

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