- Convergent B cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 epitopes are predominantly naive
- Shared T cell clusters emerge over disease course in recovering COVID-19 patients
- A receptor sequence repository from COVID-19 patients is established for public use

Next-Generation Sequencing of T and B Cell Receptor Repertoires from COVID-19 Patients Showed Signatures Associated with Severity of Disease

NGS can sequence 30,000 nucleotides of the viral genome. This method provides insight on environmental monitoring, surveillance testing, and origin of the strain to pinpoint the viral evolution. 

University of California, Santa Cruz

Diagnostic Testing methods that amplify DNA using reverse transcriptase.
Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests include but are not limited to:

- RT-PCR
- RT-LAMP
- Next Generation Sequencing
- Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification
- RPA

NAAT

- Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification
- RPA
- CRISPR
- Cas13a Assay
- Next Generation Sequencing 
- Nanomaterials (nanotrap particles, etc.)
- Wondfo Qualitative Rapid Chromatographic Immunoassay (RCI)

Emerging Methods for Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2

Dcruz, R. J., Currier, A. W., & Sampson, V. B. (2020). Laboratory Testing Methods for Novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 8. doi:10.3389/fcell.2020.00468

Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology

RNA is reverse transcribed into cDNA and amplified using a polymerase chain reaction. Primers target various sections of the virus genetic sequence with the E gene being the highest sensitivity test and being confirmed by the RdRp gene.
Upper and lower respiratory samples are collected. Nasopharyngeal swabs are high priority specimens for SARS-CoV-2 while low priority specimens include: sputum, oropharyngeal swabs, and tracheal aspirates.

RT-PCR

RT-LAMP functions as using multiple loop primers target the ORF1ab gene and the S gene used for DNA strand displacement activity and then target amplification is used. This method has reported a 100% sensitivity and 100% specificity, and the mean detection time was under 30 minutes. Additionally, RT-LAMP assay was two times faster than qRT-PCR and is storable at room temperature. This permits labs to extend their capacity and process two times more clinical samples. The technique could potentially be used for high-throughput screening purposes. 

RT-LAMP

Next Generation Sequencing

This method detects the total viral RNA from a cell culture supernatant and 19 nasopharyngeal swab samples. Uses isothermal methods for reverse transcription and then uses recombinase activity to promote primer binding to the respective dsDNA sequence. This process also achieves 100% specificity and sensitivity and offers advantages over the typical RT-PCR in efficiency and portability allowing for clinical decisions to be made real time when a patient visits. 

This method amplifies a DNA or RNA target sequence, but unlike PCR, does not need thermal cycling. These assays use isothermal methods to allow for primer binding and then amplify the selected strands using a polymerase with stand displacement activity. The amplified gene products are then detected via photometry. 

Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification

The development of a SENsitive Splint-based one-step isothermal RNA detection (SENSR) method for rapid and straightforward onsite detection of pathogen RNAs with high sensitivity and specificity offers great potential for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis. 


SENSR consists of two simple enzymatic reactions: a ligation reaction by SplintR ligase and subsequent transcription by T7 RNA polymerase. The resulting transcript forms an RNA aptamer that induces fluorescence. Compared to the conventional culture-based or immunoassay-based approaches, a nucleic acid-based approach relies primarily on a strand-displacing polymerase or T7 RNA polymerase at a constant temperature. In particular, the SplintR ligase can efficiently ligate two DNA probes using a target single-stranded RNA as a splint, enabling the sequence-specific detection of RNA molecules. 


SENSR integrates all component reaction steps using the specially designed probes that contain all required functional parts: promoter, hybridization sequence to target, and an aptamer template. Even with the multifaceted features of the SENSR probes, the design process is systematic and straightforward. The probe design is unique in that two DNA probes are designed to expose single-stranded target recognition parts, enabling hybridization of the target RNA and the probes at 37°C. 


SENsitive Splint-based one-step isothermal RNA detection (SENSR)

Uses recently discovered crRNA guided detection that is specific to viral RNA. The Cas13a enzyme that recognizes and binds targeted RNAs in a sequence-specific manner for signal amplification and nucleic acid detection.   

CRISPR

Unlike CRISPR, the Cas13a protein needs to be purified and is recombinantly expressed. Target site-recognition activates reporter probes resulting in fluorescence to recognize viral RNA. Assays can be designed as a paper dipstick test which delivers in 30-60 minutes. 


Cas13a Assay

Biosensors for COVID-19

Combining the excellent electrical and optical properties of nanomaterials with biological or synthetic molecules as receptors to detect selectively any kind of analyte, nanobiosensors are a valuable alternative to conventional diagnostic tools. 

- Graphene-based Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Biosensor

- Dual-Functional Plasmonic Biosensor

Paper/nanomaterial-based sensors, in general, and, particularly, NP-based lateral-flow devices that are observed with the naked eye or operated through a smartphone are now the most reported testing platforms for the analysis of COVID-19-related biomarkers. Nanopaper and nanochannels may also offer cost-efficient alternatives for detection of viruses and related biomarkers. 

Nanomaterials for COVID-19 Diagnosis

The Wondfo RCI functions by detecting IgM/IgG antibodies for SARS-CoV-2.  10 μL of plasma or serum are inserted into the testing device, and antibodies that fight against SARS-CoV-2 contained in the sample attach to recombinant antigens that cover colloidal gold particles, ultimately creating a complex of antigen-antibody/colloidal gold particles.  80 μL of buffer solution must also be inserted into the testing device under the sample cavity.  The results of the RCI can be read within 15 minutes.  A major limitation of RCI is that it is not capable of differentiating between acute disease and infection from the past.  


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