Peer victimization is more prevalent in early schooling and decreases as school goes on, possibly due to maturing and tolerating bullying less. Boys experience greater peer victimization overall, but girls and boys have similar levels of change in victimization throughout their schooling experiences. 

Peer Victimization Prevalence and Normative Trends

- There are 5 trajectories for peer victimization that best fit with students' experiences: high-chronic victims, early victims, moderate-emerging victims, low victims, and nonvictims.
- Students stayed in their same trajectory all throughout their time in school.
- For a large number of children, peer victimization was a consistent aspect of school for them as seen by the students classified as moderate-emerging and high-chronic victims.
- Moderate-emerging victims have peer victimization increase close to middle school. This might be why previous research claimed peer victimization peaked in middle school.

Peer Victimization Trajectories

There is a small negative association between peer victimization and academic achievement. This is because there is a lot that could affect academic achievement more directly than peer victimization. 


Peer Victimization and Academic Performance

Peer victimization affects student engagement in the following aspects:
- school liking
- school avoidance
- independent participation
- perceived academic competence

Peer Victimization and Student Engagement

Peer victimization is often associated with depressive symptoms, which also increase the risk of suicide ideation.

Peer Victimization and Depression

Reference for the Effects of Peer Victimization

Peer victimization or bullying has adverse long-term effects on the victim, these effects are:
* Difficulties making and keeping friends.
* Hypervigilance to hostile signs that affect social relationships with family and friends.
* More difficulties finding jobs.
* Low self-esteem.
* Trouble trusting people.
* Dread and avoidance of new social settings.
* Perceive themselves as excessively sensitive and weak.
* Increased risk of psychosis by the age of 18.
* Lower chances of getting diplomas due to dropping out of school from being bullied.
* Increased chances of being victimized.
* Anxiety and depression in young and middle adulthood.
* Increased possibility of having poor financial management.
* Tend to earn less at the age of 50.
* Lower likelihood of living with a significant other.
* Inclination to self-isolate.
* Feeling of anger, and longing for revenge.
* Poor overall health and slow illness recovery.
* Less likelihood of having social support.
* Increased risk of suicide.

Long-term Effects of Peer Victimization

Aversive short-term effects of peer victimization or bullying are:
* Depression.
* Anxiety disorder.
* Anger.
* Higher risk of developing internalizing problems.
* Getting sick more frequently.
* Anxiety in places where peer victimization might happen.
* School absenteeism.
* Lower grades than their non-victimized peers.
* Higher risks of self-harm or suicidal ideations.

Short-term Effects of Peer Victimization

Research studies found that the age at which an individual is first bullied is linked to the extent of the long-term and short-term aversive effects. Individuals who were first bullied in their pre-teen years seem to be less negatively impacted than individuals who were first bullied when they were teenagers. Individuals who were first bullied in their teenage years report greater long-term social withdrawal and higher reactivity to aggression than the ones who were first bullied in their pre-teens. This is because teenagers tend to use more self-destructive coping mechanisms that will have short-term and long-term aversive effects such as substance abuse due to having more independence than younger children.

Early vs. Later Exposure to Peer Victimization

Studies found that social support can buffer the short-term and long-term aversive effects of peer victimization. Having social support sends the individual numerous positive messages about themselves and their worth which decreases the opportunities for the bullies' negative messages to harm the self-esteem of the victim. Low self-esteem can have detrimental and difficult-to-reverse outcomes on well-being that lead to both short-term and long-term aversive effects.

Social Support and Peer Victimization

It was found that the individual’s perception of control over past events of peer victimization is linked to having less long-term aversive effects. The more control the individual believes they had over the experience of being bullied, the less likely they would be affected by being bullied in the long term. This is because individuals who believed that they had no control over the bullying situation feel more helplessness than the individuals who do. Learned helplessness is one of the causes of depression which is one of the long-term aversive effects of being bullied.

Perception of Control on the Effect of Peer Victimization

Peer victimization can alter HPA-axis activity, cortisol levels, and C-reactive protein levels in the brain. These can heighten the risk of developing psychological disorders such as depression, represses the immune system, and increase the risk of developing metabolic disorders and cardiovascular diseases.

The Effect of Peer Victimization on the Brain

Peer victimization causes immense damage to the self-concept because it teaches the victims that they are outsiders or outcasts and it instills fear and self-loathing in their minds since being a target of bullying ceases one's worth, capability, and effectiveness to diminish. This results in an increase in the likelihood of developing depression and anger issues. Peer victimization teaches the victim that they are not safe in the world, powerless, and lack control over their lives. This leads to feelings of hopelessness and learned helplessness which also results in developing depression. Furthermore, the bullied individual learns how they are seen by bullies, and they start seeing themselves the same as the bully sees them, they start seeing themselves as weak, pitiful, and a loser. And this damages their identity and self-confidence.

Peer Victimization Damage on Self Esteem

Since peer victimization damages the self-esteem and identity of the victim, one of the ways to counteract this damage is by fixing the damage to self-esteem and identity to treat the long-term effects of peer victimization. Victims of bullying must regain their sense of safety through having more control over themselves by finding something to do that gives them feelings of accomplishment and helps empower them and increase their self-esteem. They must also learn that they are acceptable and have something to offer. This could be achieved through cognitive behavioral therapy that works on social withdrawal, social anxiety, and dysfunctional core beliefs that generate beliefs of worthlessness. Cognitive behavioral therapy can also be used for treating depression which is one of the long-term effects of peer victimization.

Possible Treatment for Long-term Effects of Peer Victimization 

Peer victimization is when a student is bullied or aggressed constantly for a period of time by their peers. It varies from student to student on how frequent and when they are victimized. Being victimized by peers has lasting effects for students academically, psychologically, and socially.

Stanford University

Parents

Peers

Teachers

Age

Physical appearance

Gender

Academic achievement

Sources of self-esteem

Ladd, G. W., Ettekal, I., & Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. (2017). Peer victimization trajectories from kindergarten through high school: Differential pathways for children’s school engagement and achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(6), 826–841. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000177

Peer Victimization Trajectories From Kindergarten Through High School: Differential Pathways for Children’s School Engagement and Achievement?

Praise is able to increase a person's self-esteem and can encourage people to work hard on their tasks. Praise can be in the form of approval or awards.

Effect of praise on self-esteem

Peer Victimization 

parental support and a child's self esteem tends to be both positively correlated reciprocal in that parents effect self esteem as well as self esteem affecting the level parental support reported.

parents and self-esteem

peers tend to boost a person's self-esteem due to the accepting environment they provide that may not be otherwise present in other parts of the student's life.

peers and self-esteem

there seems to not be a significant discrepancy between those who are high achievers and those who are not. This is due to low achievers tending to devote their attention to things that boost their self-esteem (i.e. sports, hanging with peers) rather than school which threatens their self-esteem.

achievement levels and self-esteem 

self esteem tends to increase from childhood into young adulthood, taking a slight decrease during young adolescent years (13-18). Once a person reaches 30 years old, self-esteem tends to stabilize and remains the same for the rest of their lives. Genders also differ on the times when their self-esteem increases and decreases during their adolescent years.

age and self esteem

overall, males tend to have higher self esteem than females, especially throughout young adulthood, however the difference is not very large. 

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