Sodium yttrium fluoride (NaYF4) is an upconversion nanoparticle (UCN) with polyethylenimine coating, which gives it a hydrophilic characteristic. It has shown antiviral activity against both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses (Dengue virus serotype 2 and adenovirus type 5).

Sodium yttrium fluoride (NaYF4) with zinc phthalocyanine PS

MXenes are emerging as a promising tool to capture and degrade viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2. MXenes are light-to-heat converters that are capable of adsorbing virus and inactivating it by applying light. Some MXenes are antibacterial as well, likely due to their combined hydrophilic property and charge transfer ability. They are particularly promising for the development of coatings that are capable of capturing and inactivating viruses on face masks and other PPE. MXenes can also regenerate dialysate by removing toxins that build up in the setting of kidney failure - they may be able to address key limitations of current ambulatory dialysis systems by offering efficient urea adsorption, small size, and lightweight. 

- Biocompatible MXenes




2D Carbides and Nitrides (MXenes)

Graphene has become an engineering material with a variety of uses. For instance, graphene can serve as an effective barrier for masks, gloves, and gowns for medics against bacteria and viruses larger than 300 nm. Graphene has been used for effective photodynamic inactivation of viruses, including Semliki Forest virus, vesicular stomatitis virus, HSV-1, HIV-1, mosquito iridovirus, influenza A virus, and phage mS2.




Graphene 

Nanoparticles for photodynamic inactivation of the virus include but are not limited to the
following:  


- Sodium yttrium fluoride (NaYF4) with zinc phthalocyanine PS

- MXenes

- Fullerene

- Graphene

Smith College

PDT works by exciting photosensitive (PS) agents through radiation with appropriate wavelengths. This process produces reactive oxygen species that lead to cell death. However, PSs lack hydrophilicity, target specificity, and tissue penetration ability to make PDT an effective therapeutic approach for COVID-19. Using nanoparticles may enhance this therapeutic method to treat COVID-19 patients.

- Photodynamic Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with Nanomaterials

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)-based Virotherapy for COVID-19

- Photodynamic Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with Nanomaterials
- Photothermal Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with Nanomaterials
- Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with Photocatalytic Nanomaterials
- Other Methods of SARS-CoV-2 Inactivation with Nanomaterials
- Nanomaterial-based Immune Modulation for SARS-CoV-2
- Nanomaterial-based Drug Delivery Systems for SARS-CoV-2
- Nanotechnology to target gut microbiome

Nanomaterials for COVID-19 Treatment 

Weiss C, Carriere M, Fusco L, et al. Toward Nanotechnology-Enabled Approaches against the COVID-19 Pandemic. ACS Nano. 2020;14(6):6383-6406. doi:10.1021/acsnano.0c03697

Toward Nanotechnology-Enabled Approaches against the COVID-19 Pandemic

Photodynamic Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with Nanomaterials

Definition: Ag and Au nanoparticles and nanorods can induce heating when illuminated at optimal wavelength, corresponding to the plasmon resonance condition, in a process called plasmonic photothermal treatment. The proposed underlying mechanism is plasmon-enhanced shockwave generation, which alters virus membrane and/or surface groups and, therefore, reduces virus binding and fusion with the host cell. 

Plasmonic nanoparticles for photothermal inactivation of the virus include but are not limited to the following:

- Ag nanoparticles

- Au nanoparticles


Photothermal Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with Nanomaterial

Photocatalytic nanoparticles for inactivation of the virus include but are not limited to the following:

- Titanium apatite 

Photocatalytic nanoparticles that are effective bactericides and may be successful inactivators of SARS-CoV-2 include but are not limited to the following:

- TiO2

- BiVO4

- CuFeO2

- CuYxFe2-xO4

- LaFeO8

- CuMn2O4

- ZnMn2O4

- BaCr2O4

- SrCr2O4

- NiCo2O4

- CuCo2O4

- LaCoO3

- La0.9Sr0.1CoO3

Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with Photocatalytic Nanomaterials

Other Methods of SARS-CoV-2 Inactivation with Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials could  be used to deliver drugs to the pulmonary system via inhalators. Cellular binding of viral particles at the alveoli can be inhibited using targeted nanoparticles (NPs) against angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors or viral S protein. 

Nanomaterial-based Drug Delivery Systems for SARS-CoV-2

Nanomaterials have emerged as promising tools to amplify or suppress host's immune response. By acting as adjuvants added to vaccines for COVID-19, engineered nanomaterials can aid subjects with impaired immune system, such as the elderly, and reduce the amount of vaccine protein production and injection. 


Intranasal delivery of polymer-encapsulated antigen triggers a strong immune response, and the success of vaccination depends on the appropriate type of polymer in combination with the antigen. Similarly, researchers have developed lipid and lipid-based NPs as delivery platforms for mRNAs or siRNAs to enable the synthesis of key viral proteins for vaccination (for example, Moderna’s mRNA-1273/NCT04283461 vaccine) or to inactivate critical viral target genes, respectively. 


Considering the possibility of random viral mutations that may alter the antigen shape, functionalizing nanomaterials with a wide number of molecules at the same time to target the virus, or motifs that are specific for pathogens, will increase the efficiency of vaccines and their ability to prevent viral infection.


There are ongoing screenings and classifications of various nanomaterials based on their immunomodulatory properties and cytotoxicity levels. Developing an adjuvant for clinical use requires Phase III randomized trials, which could take several years.


Nanomaterial-based Immune Modulation for SARS-CoV-2

Therapeutic strategies that utilize antibiotics can be both ineffective and harmful to the natural gut flora. Instead, nanotechnology can be used not only to design intelligent functional foods and drugs to treat COVID-19 but also to serve as a delivery system. These drugs would be instrumental in combating illness prophylactically and during infection because they would “target problematic bacterial strains in the gastrointestinal tract and enhance its health by improving gut barriers against pathogens and inflammatory reagents and by providing the base for creating disruptive remedies based on microbiome engineering”. 

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