A phylogenetic tree, also known as a tree of life, is a branching diagram used to depict the evolutionary relationships among different groups of organisms. In these diagrams, all branches typically originate from a single 'trunk' representing a common ancestor, and organisms are arranged in branching structures based on how closely related they are thought to be.

Phylogenetic Tree

Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary relationships and history of different species of organisms on Earth. Taxonomic classification systems often take these phylogenies into account to organize species based on their evolutionary connections, which can be visually depicted using phylogenetic trees.

Smith College

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The process in which physical/behavioral changes of a population occur over long periods of time. Evolution is a scientific theory that for over the last 150 years, scientists have gathered an overwhelming amount of evidence that supports this theory.  

Evolution 

In biology, taxonomy is the systematic classification, description, identification, and naming of living organisms. It provides a framework for organizing the enormous diversity of life into different groups based on shared characteristics.

Taxonomy in Biology

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

https://openstax.org/details/books/microbiology/

Microbiology covers the scope and sequence requirements for a single-semester microbiology course for non-majors. The book presents the core concepts of microbiology with a focus on applications for careers in allied health. The pedagogical features of the text make the material interesting and accessible while maintaining the career-application focus and scientific rigor inherent in the subject matter. Microbiology’s art program enhances students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs.

Microbiology is produced through a collaborative publishing agreement between OpenStax and the American Society for Microbiology Press. The book aligns with the curriculum guidelines of the American Society for Microbiology.

OpenStax Microbiology Textbook

- While evolution allows for modifications to occur in species over time, only the most advantageous modifications will be passed on to the descendants of a population over time 
- This is known as natural selection, first described by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace

Evolution through Natural Selection

Rapid evolution in plants and animals that is instigated by human behavior, often through the manipulation of genes. 

Evolution through Artificial Selection 

Evolution is a constant process that is not exclusive to the past and occurs in our modern day! For example, cod fish have recently, rapidly evolved to be smaller in order to avoid human capture in light of excessive fishing.

Current Examples of Evolution

The mutual influence of two or more species on one another's evolution.

Coevolution

Evolution Reference Library

- Social Anthropology 

- Cultural Anthropology

- Linguistic Anthropology

- Biological or Physical Anthropology

- Visual Anthropology

- Psychological Anthropology

- Archaeology 

- Applied Anthropology 

- Nutritional Anthropology 

- Digital Anthropology

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

The study of human behavior, societies, and cultures throughout history (including the present). Anthropology, in broad terms, studies methods to describe and explain the similarities and differences in biology and culture of all humanity in all times and places. 

Anthropology

Evolution by natural selection was first demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive. This is followed by three observable facts about living organisms: 
- 1) Traits vary among individuals with respect to their morphology, physiology, and behavior (phenotypic variation)
- 2) Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness)
- 3) Traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness)

Basis for Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Phylogeny

- Taxa
- Taxonomic Rank
- Taxonomic hierarchy

Components of a biological taxonomy

From largest/most general to smallest/most specific:

- domain
- kingdom 
- phylum (in zoology) / division (in botany)	
- class 
- order
- family
- genus
- species

Main Taxonomic Ranks in Biology

Carolus Linnaeus ($${}1701$$–$${}1778$$) was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician recognized as the most famous early taxonomist. He developed a standardized system for categorizing and naming organisms, allowing scientists to discuss biodiversity using consistent terminology.

Carolus Linnaeus

Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology and Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology are the standard reference texts used for identifying and classifying different prokaryotes. First published in $${}1923$$ and updated numerous times, these manuals provide essential methodologies for differentiating microbes based on nonvisual characteristics.

Bergey's Manuals

Because many microbes look morphologically identical and lack easily observable macroscopic features, microbiologists must capture and grow them to study their nonvisual characteristics. These differentiation and classification methods include biochemical tests to identify unique chemicals, serological tests for specific antibodies, and genetic sequencing of DNA and rRNA.

Nonvisual Microbial Identification Methods

Serological tests are utilized in microbiology to identify specific antibodies that will react against the proteins found in certain microbial species. This nonvisual identification method is essential for differentiating and classifying microbes that otherwise appear morphologically identical.

Serological Identification of Microorganisms

Because many bacterial species appear morphologically identical, biochemical tests are crucial for identifying chemicals unique to specific species. The biochemical characteristics of a bacterium provide essential traits for its identification and classification. Specific advanced methods for this analysis include MALDI-TOF analysis, Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis, Phospholipid-derived fatty acids (PLFA) analysis, and proteomic analysis.

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