- Anthropology & Education Quarterly
- University of Manchester School of Social Sciences 
- Current Anthropology
- Psychological Anthropology 
- Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology
- National Park Service
- Indiana University Bloomington Department of Anthropology 
- What is Primatology? Central Washington University 
- Wikipedia 
- Stanford University Anthropology Department

References for Anthropology

- Margaret Mead
- Franz Boas
- Ruth Benedict
- Edward Sapir

Foundational Anthropologists 

There are conflicting ideas on how to organize the fields of archaeology and anthropology as archaeology in the Americas is a subfield of anthropology: the study of humans. In other parts of the world, archaeology is an independent field of study or part of historical research. The current section on the map follows America's organizational structure placing archaeology under anthropology as a subfield but in other countries, these fields are placed as separate fields of study and sometimes have different terms or meanings associated. 

Difference Between Archaeology and Anthropology 

There are many ways to conduct anthropology. Different approaches to anthropology have developed in many countries. Anthropologists on a global scale work together through international organizations to try and understand more about our lives as humans.

Anthropology on a Global Scale

- Primates
- Rodentia
- Chiroptera
- Soricomorpha
- Cetartiodactyla
- Carnivora 

Examples of Orders in Mammalia Class

The study of identifying and grouping organisms to reconstruct the evolutionary histories of organisms.

Taxonomy in Biology

Key research methods and analytical approaches in anthropology include:
- Holism
- Comparison
- Dynamism
- Fieldwork
- Evaluating context
- Dating methods
- Identifying remains

Key Research Methods in Anthropology

The study of human behavior, societies, and cultures throughout history (including the present). Anthropology, in broad terms, studies methods to describe and explain the similarities and differences in biology and culture of all humanity in all times and places. 

Arizona State University

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

- anthropology 
- behavioral sciences
- economics
- human geography
- linguistics
- sociology
- media studies
- musicology
- political science
- psychology
- gender studies

Disciplines in Social science

- Art
- Religion
- Philosophy
- Literature
- History
- Archaeology
- Anthropology
- Languages
- Classics
- Gender Studies
- Disability Studies
- Digital Humanities

Humanities Disciplines 

The process in which physical/behavioral changes of a population occur over long periods of time. Evolution is a scientific theory that for over the last 150 years, scientists have gathered an overwhelming amount of evidence that supports this theory.  

Evolution 

The scientific method is a rigorous process for systematically collecting and evaluating evidence to test ideas and answer questions. While other methods of knowing may generate initial concepts, the scientific method requires controlled observations and logical reasoning to validate those ideas. Although it is highly effective at producing valid knowledge, it is resource-intensive and strictly limited to addressing empirical questions.

Scientific Method

Wikipedia

Anthropology

Study and analysis of multi-level government operations, along with their societal impacts.

Political Science

The study of language. Topics include language form, meaning, context and social, cultural and historical influences.

Linguistics

The study of societal behavior, structures, development, functions, and issues. 

Sociology

A system composed of many distributed elements whose aggregate properties cannot be predicted by observing the behavior of an element. Furthermore, the observable manifestations or 'forms' of a complex system may only represent superficial aspects, with its true 'essence' or fundamental nature remaining hidden or less apparent beneath the surface.

Complex Systems

Environmental Studies is a multidisciplinary study that incorporates concepts from the physical sciences, economics/commerce, the humanities, and social sciences.  It studies the environment and the human impact on the environment.  

Environmental Studies

Disability Studies is an interdisciplinary field of study that examines the consequences and implications of disability as well as various issues that impact the disability community.

Disability Studies

Law is a piece of legislation created by government or society to enforce a desired behavior or prohibit an undesired action. These rules govern the individuals that are citizens of that society or government or determine the actions taken by that body.

Gender studies is an interdisciplinary field that explores how all gender identities are developed and how they affect people’s experiences in society.

Gender Studies

Studies the range of human sexual behavior and sexuality. 

Sexology

Social science disciplines focused on the study of human and animal behaviors through their interactions with the world at large. The four predominant disciplines within the behavioral sciences are:
* Anthropology
* Economics
* Psychology
* Sociology

Behavioral Sciences

Economics is the academic discipline that examines the interactions among people and between people and their natural surroundings in the context of producing and securing their means of subsistence. The field also investigates the evolution of these interactions through time and their variations among different societies.

Economics

Psychology is formally defined as the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. It focuses on understanding how individuals act, think, and feel, along with the underlying cognitive and physiological mechanisms. As a scientific discipline, it seeks to answer fundamental questions about a wide range of human phenomena by relying on empirical evidence rather than common sense.

Psychology

History is the study and interpretation of a series of facts about the past and why certain events happened. 

History

Religions are collections of beliefs, practices, and meaningful places/items/people that provide an understanding of the supernatural, spirituality, and transcendence. 

Religion

An investigation into fundamental and often general questions concerning humanity, knowledge, reality, and existence.

Philosophy

Literature most broadly is all written work in addition to “oral literature”. 

Literature

Digital Humanities is an area that interacts with computing or digital technologies and the disciplines of the humanities.

Digital Humanities

Language is a formal system of communication that is structured by a set of rules, known as grammar, and utilizes a vocabulary of words, referred to as a lexicon.

Language

- While evolution allows for modifications to occur in species over time, only the most advantageous modifications will be passed on to the descendants of a population over time 
- This is known as natural selection, first described by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace

Evolution through Natural Selection

Rapid evolution in plants and animals that is instigated by human behavior, often through the manipulation of genes. 

Evolution through Artificial Selection 

Evolution is a constant process that is not exclusive to the past and occurs in our modern day! For example, cod fish have recently, rapidly evolved to be smaller in order to avoid human capture in light of excessive fishing.

Current Examples of Evolution

The mutual influence of two or more species on one another's evolution.

Coevolution

Evolution Reference Library

- The study of the evolutionary history of a certain group of organisms, utilizes taxonomy to show relationships 
- Often represented as a family tree to show which species "yielded" later ones

Phylogeny

- Social Anthropology 

- Cultural Anthropology

- Linguistic Anthropology

- Biological or Physical Anthropology

- Visual Anthropology

- Psychological Anthropology

- Archaeology 

- Applied Anthropology 

- Nutritional Anthropology 

- Digital Anthropology

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

Evolution by natural selection was first demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive. This is followed by three observable facts about living organisms: 
- 1) Traits vary among individuals with respect to their morphology, physiology, and behavior (phenotypic variation)
- 2) Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness)
- 3) Traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness)

Basis for Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Studies the history of humanity through observing, and analyzing material culture (i.e. artifacts)

Archaeology

Psychological research focuses on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mind) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. Psychologists use scientific methods to acquire knowledge.

Psychological Research

The scientific process is driven by two inseparable forms of reasoning: deductive and inductive. While different research approaches may emphasize one over the other, both are essential components of the cycle of scientific inquiry. Deductive reasoning involves testing existing ideas against real-world evidence, whereas inductive reasoning uses real-world observations to generate new ideas.

The Types of Reasoning Within the Scientific Process

The scientific research process functions as a continuous cycle that starts with an overarching theory, leading to the generation of a specific hypothesis. Following this, data is collected, analyzed, and summarized to report findings. These results ultimately decide whether the initial theory is confirmed or if it requires modification. If modified, the updated theory acts as the basis for new hypotheses, thereby sustaining the ongoing cycle of scientific investigation.

The Cyclical Process of Scientific Inquiry

Analyze the following research scenario and identify the primary methodological flaw based on the principles of the scientific process. Explain your reasoning.

Evaluating a Research Conclusion

A researcher develops a hypothesis that regular meditation reduces symptoms of anxiety. They conduct an experiment and find that the group that meditated daily for a month reported significantly lower anxiety levels than a control group. These findings support the initial hypothesis. Based on the principles of how scientific knowledge is advanced, what is the most appropriate next step for the researcher?

The domain of science is confined to matter and energy—entities that can be objectively measured. This focus on measurable phenomena means that science cannot be used as a tool to acquire knowledge about values or morality.

Scientific Focus on Measurable Phenomena

A major advantage of the scientific method is its superior ability to produce valid and reliable knowledge compared to other methods of knowing. By systematically testing ideas against empirical evidence, it minimizes the biases and errors inherent in alternative approaches.

Benefits of the Scientific Method

Despite its reliability, the scientific method has significant drawbacks. It is often highly demanding of time and resources, making it impractical for every inquiry. Furthermore, its application is strictly limited to addressing empirical questions, meaning it cannot resolve issues that lack observable or measurable evidence.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

Empirical knowledge is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be consistently observed and verified across multiple instances, regardless of the observer. Relying on such observable evidence to support claims is the hallmark of scientific research, distinguishing it from non-scientific methods of understanding behavior, such as intuition or personal experience.

Empirical Knowledge

Systematic empiricism involves making careful, structured observations under controlled conditions to rigorously test hypotheses. In the scientific method, this approach goes beyond casual observation by organizing how evidence is collected, ensuring that ideas are evaluated against objective, real-world data.

Systematic Empiricism

Despite its potential for error, empiricism is at the heart of the scientific method. Scientific inquiry fundamentally relies on making observations to gather data, demonstrating that experiential and observable evidence is essential for scientific understanding.

Role of Empiricism in Science

The scientific method is defined as a formalized process of systematically collecting and evaluating empirical evidence in order to test hypotheses, explore ideas, and answer specific research questions.

Definition of the Scientific Method

In science, a theory is a coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena. It extends beyond directly observed events by incorporating unobserved variables, structures, processes, or organizing principles. While the term 'theory' in everyday language often implies an untested guess, scientific theories have no such implication; they can range from untested explanations to rigorously evaluated, well-supported models accepted by the scientific community, such as the theory of evolution or the germ theory of disease.

Scientific Theory

Before conducting formal experiments, scientists must first formulate ideas and hypotheses to test. To generate these new concepts, researchers frequently draw upon foundational methods of knowing, including intuition, authority, rationalism, and basic empiricism, before subjecting them to rigorous scientific evaluation.

Idea Generation in the Scientific Method

Within the scientific method, researchers rely on rationalism to reach valid conclusions after collecting data. By applying logical reasoning to the evidence gathered through systematic observation, scientists can properly interpret their findings and evaluate the accuracy of their original ideas.

Role of Rationalism in the Scientific Method

The final step of the research process is reporting the results, which allows scientists to share their findings with the broader community. The most common methods for disseminating research include publishing articles in peer-reviewed journals, contributing chapters to edited books, and giving presentations at academic conferences.

Learn Before

Related

Learn After