- National Marine Sanctuaries
- National Park Service
- Forensic Science
- Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology


References for Archaeology

Key Research Methods in Archaeology 

- Ethnoarchaeology
- Historical Archaeology 
- Archaeoastronomy
- Zooarchaeology
- Archaeobotany or Paleoethnobotany
- Experimental Archaeology
- Environmental Archaeology
- Forensic Archaeology
- Geoarchaeology
- Maritime Archaeology/ Underwater Archaeology
- Collections Management
- Palaeoarchaeology
- Paleopathology
- Bioarchaeology
- Archaeogenetics
- Osteoarchaeology   

Archaeological Subdisciplines

Studies the history of humanity through observing, and analyzing material culture (i.e. artifacts)

Arizona State University

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

- Philology
- Archaeology
- Art History
- Ancient History in Greece
- Philosophy
- Reception Studies
- Ancient History in Rome 
- Ancient Roman Religion

Areas of Study within Classics

- Social Anthropology 

- Cultural Anthropology

- Linguistic Anthropology

- Biological or Physical Anthropology

- Visual Anthropology

- Psychological Anthropology

- Archaeology 

- Applied Anthropology 

- Nutritional Anthropology 

- Digital Anthropology

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

American anthropology is usually divided into four main subfields:
- Archaeology 
- Biological Anthropology 
- Cultural Anthropology 
- Linguistic Anthropology 

The Four Subfields of Anthropology 

The scientific method is a rigorous process for systematically collecting and evaluating evidence to test ideas and answer questions. While other methods of knowing may generate initial concepts, the scientific method requires controlled observations and logical reasoning to validate those ideas. Although it is highly effective at producing valid knowledge, it is resource-intensive and strictly limited to addressing empirical questions.

Scientific Method

Wikipedia

Philology is the study of language preserved in written sources. Within Classics, classical languages are studied from both formal written works as well as informal sources like clay pot shards and graffiti on buildings. These informal writings help scholars to understand the slang and nuance of the language.


Philology

Art and architecture of the ancient world were incredibly influential and much of what can be learned from the study of ancient art can still be found in modern art. In classical studies, the focus is on the development of art in the classical world.

Art History

Beginning in 6th Century BCE, ancient Greek philosophers attempted to make sense of their world using reason. These early philosophers discussed everything from astronomy to politics to ontology and aesthetics. 

Ancient Greek Philosophy

Study of how classical antiquity, particularly Ancient Greek and Roman literature, have been recieved from the ancient past to modern times. 

Classical Reception Studies

Archaeology

Ancient Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by ancient Greek philosophy. There were two main schools of thought in ancient Roman philosophy:

- Epicureanism (named for its founder, Epicurus) taught that pleasure was the highest level of good and was the way to attain freedom from physical pain and fear.

- Stoicism (founded by Zeon) taught was best lived through harmony with reason, and was based on knowledge, with total indifference to pleasure and pain. 

Ancient Roman Philosophy

The history of Ancient Rome consists of three basic eras:
- The Founding and the Period of Kings, which lasted from circa 625 BC-510 BC.
- The Republican Era, which lasted from 510 BC-31 BC.
- And finally the Imperial Era, which lasted from 31 BC-AD 476.

Ancient Roman History

Ancient Roman religious practices mostly mimicked those of Ancient Greece. The Romans copied the Greek pantheon of gods but renamed them. For example, Zeus became Jupiter, Hera became Juno, Poseidon became Neptune, Aphrodite became Venus, and Athena became Diana. Later on, the Romans also began to incorporate the worship of various "eastern" deities, such as the Egyptian goddess Isis, as well as the Persian god Mithras. 

Ultimately, Christianity was adopted as the official religion of Rome, supplanting all other religious practices. 

Ancient Roman Religion

Focuses on how humans living in societies operate and how they are organized. 

Social Anthropology 

The study of psychological subjects using anthropological practices and methods and understanding how psychological processes shape social processes.

Psychological Anthropology

The study of biological and behavioral characteristics of humans, hominin ancestors, and non-human primates.

Biological/Physical Anthropology

Studies the production, histories, and representation of cultures in ethnographic photography, film, other newer media, and all other visual representations, including performances.

Visual Anthropology 

Studies human languages in the context of the cultures that developed them. Focuses on the foundation of languages and how language affects socities.

Linguistic Anthropology 

Focuses on investigating cultural variation, beliefs, and social/cognitive organization among humans. Studies how culture organizes and shapes the world and how humans are shaped by their environment.

Cultural Anthropology 

Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital technology. The field is new and has a variety of names, including techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyber anthropology, and virtual anthropology.

Digital Anthropology 

Applied Anthropology is sometimes referred to as the "fifth sub-discipline." Practical application of anthropology theories, methods, and findings. Anthropologists solve real-world problems using anthropological techniques and usually are employed outside of academic settings.


Applied Anthropology

Nutritional anthropology is the study of food and nutrition from an evolutionary, behavioral, social, and cultural perspective. These anthropologist study how nutrition impacts health at an individual, community, and population level.

Nutritional Anthropology 

The study of fossils and ancient life is defined as before and including the Holocene epoch. 

Paleontology / Palaeontology 

- University of Manchester School of Social Sciences
- Applied Anthropology: University of Memphis

References for Additional Subdisciplines of Anthropology 

The study of human behavior, societies, and cultures throughout history (including the present). Anthropology, in broad terms, studies methods to describe and explain the similarities and differences in biology and culture of all humanity in all times and places. 

Anthropology

Psychological research focuses on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mind) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. Psychologists use scientific methods to acquire knowledge.

Psychological Research

The scientific process is driven by two inseparable forms of reasoning: deductive and inductive. While different research approaches may emphasize one over the other, both are essential components of the cycle of scientific inquiry. Deductive reasoning involves testing existing ideas against real-world evidence, whereas inductive reasoning uses real-world observations to generate new ideas.

The Types of Reasoning Within the Scientific Process

The scientific research process functions as a continuous cycle that starts with an overarching theory, leading to the generation of a specific hypothesis. Following this, data is collected, analyzed, and summarized to report findings. These results ultimately decide whether the initial theory is confirmed or if it requires modification. If modified, the updated theory acts as the basis for new hypotheses, thereby sustaining the ongoing cycle of scientific investigation.

The Cyclical Process of Scientific Inquiry

Analyze the following research scenario and identify the primary methodological flaw based on the principles of the scientific process. Explain your reasoning.

Evaluating a Research Conclusion

A researcher develops a hypothesis that regular meditation reduces symptoms of anxiety. They conduct an experiment and find that the group that meditated daily for a month reported significantly lower anxiety levels than a control group. These findings support the initial hypothesis. Based on the principles of how scientific knowledge is advanced, what is the most appropriate next step for the researcher?

The domain of science is confined to matter and energy—entities that can be objectively measured. This focus on measurable phenomena means that science cannot be used as a tool to acquire knowledge about values or morality.

Scientific Focus on Measurable Phenomena

A major advantage of the scientific method is its superior ability to produce valid and reliable knowledge compared to other methods of knowing. By systematically testing ideas against empirical evidence, it minimizes the biases and errors inherent in alternative approaches.

Benefits of the Scientific Method

Despite its reliability, the scientific method has significant drawbacks. It is often highly demanding of time and resources, making it impractical for every inquiry. Furthermore, its application is strictly limited to addressing empirical questions, meaning it cannot resolve issues that lack observable or measurable evidence.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

Empirical knowledge is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be consistently observed and verified across multiple instances, regardless of the observer. Relying on such observable evidence to support claims is the hallmark of scientific research, distinguishing it from non-scientific methods of understanding behavior, such as intuition or personal experience.

Empirical Knowledge

Systematic empiricism involves making careful, structured observations under controlled conditions to rigorously test hypotheses. In the scientific method, this approach goes beyond casual observation by organizing how evidence is collected, ensuring that ideas are evaluated against objective, real-world data.

Systematic Empiricism

Despite its potential for error, empiricism is at the heart of the scientific method. Scientific inquiry fundamentally relies on making observations to gather data, demonstrating that experiential and observable evidence is essential for scientific understanding.

Role of Empiricism in Science

The scientific method is defined as a formalized process of systematically collecting and evaluating empirical evidence in order to test hypotheses, explore ideas, and answer specific research questions.

Definition of the Scientific Method

In science, a theory is a coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena. It extends beyond directly observed events by incorporating unobserved variables, structures, processes, or organizing principles. While the term 'theory' in everyday language often implies an untested guess, scientific theories have no such implication; they can range from untested explanations to rigorously evaluated, well-supported models accepted by the scientific community, such as the theory of evolution or the germ theory of disease.

Scientific Theory

Before conducting formal experiments, scientists must first formulate ideas and hypotheses to test. To generate these new concepts, researchers frequently draw upon foundational methods of knowing, including intuition, authority, rationalism, and basic empiricism, before subjecting them to rigorous scientific evaluation.

Idea Generation in the Scientific Method

Within the scientific method, researchers rely on rationalism to reach valid conclusions after collecting data. By applying logical reasoning to the evidence gathered through systematic observation, scientists can properly interpret their findings and evaluate the accuracy of their original ideas.

Role of Rationalism in the Scientific Method

The final step of the research process is reporting the results, which allows scientists to share their findings with the broader community. The most common methods for disseminating research include publishing articles in peer-reviewed journals, contributing chapters to edited books, and giving presentations at academic conferences.

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