Phenomenological research

Grounded theory research

Ethnographic research

Case study research

Narrative Research

Types of Qualitative Research Approaches

Qualitative research involves non-numerical data and analyses, often using a naturalistic approach to observe and analyze human behavior. Information is often gathered from interviews, naturalistic observation, focus groups, case studies, etc. Qualitative research is not analyzed statistically but rather conclusions are constructed using methods like content analysis and thematic analysis where researchers look for themes and patterns in their observed data and draw conclusions from that.

How to do Qualitative Research

Conversation analysis is a qualitative data analysis technique that examines the specific ways words are spoken during interactions, such as interviews or focus groups. Researchers utilize this specialized tool when their specific research question requires analyzing the nuances of verbal delivery.

Conversation Analysis

Interpretative phenomenological analysis is a nonstatistical method used in qualitative research to deeply describe and understand the lived experiences of research participants. Instead of relying on numerical data to draw general conclusions, it focuses on unfiltered, detailed perspectives.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

In qualitative research, 'thick description' (a term associated with Geertz, 1973) refers to the deep, rich, and highly detailed accounts of human behavior as it naturally occurs within specific real-world contexts. This depth allows researchers to capture the intricacies of an environment or interaction, offering a level of detail that quantitative methods generally cannot achieve.

Thick Description

In the context of qualitative research, 'lived experience' refers to the subjective, first-hand account of what it is actually like to be a member of a particular demographic group or to exist within a specific real-world situation. Capturing this deeply personal perspective is a primary strength of qualitative methodologies, allowing researchers to convey realities that numeric, quantitative data often misses.

Lived Experience

In qualitative research, conducting interviews is one of the most common data collection approaches, particularly in psychological studies. Researchers use interviews to directly question participants and gather detailed information. Interviews can vary widely in format, ranging from flexible, unstructured conversations guided by the participant to highly structured, strictly scripted interactions.

Interviews

Quantitative researchers often criticize qualitative methods for lacking objectivity and being difficult to systematically evaluate for reliability and validity. Furthermore, qualitative studies are frequently critiqued for not allowing findings to be generalized to broader populations or contexts beyond the specific individuals investigated. Despite these criticisms, qualitative researchers are well aware of these issues and have developed specific frameworks to address them.

Criticisms of Qualitative Research

A case study is an observational research method involving an in-depth, and often longitudinal, examination of an individual, social unit, or event. In psychology, case studies typically provide a detailed qualitative description and analysis of a single individual, frequently one who has a rare condition, unusual disorder, or specific brain damage. While they primarily rely on qualitative tools like interviews and naturalistic observation, case studies can also incorporate quantitative data such as psychological testing or physiological measurements.

Case Study

Rosenhan's study on the experiences of people in psychiatric wards is a classic example of qualitative observational research. The researchers (acting as pseudopatients) collected nonnumerical data in the form of written notes about their experiences and hospital records. The analysis relied on written descriptions supported by concrete examples, such as observing staff depersonalizing patients, rather than statistical evaluation.

Example of Qualitative Observational Research: Psychiatric Ward Study

Thematic analysis is a specialized nonstatistical technique used in qualitative research to analyze relatively unfiltered data by focusing on the prominent themes that emerge. Researchers use this method to deeply understand participant experiences rather than relying on numerical statistics.

Thematic Analysis

In a qualitative study by Per Lindqvist and colleagues (2008), researchers investigated how families of teenage suicide victims cope with their loss. Instead of starting with a specific numerical hypothesis, they conducted relatively unstructured interviews with $$10$$ families to understand the variety of reactions from their perspectives. The study revealed that even as life normalized, families unexpectedly struggled with the unresolved question of why the suicide occurred, demonstrating how qualitative research focuses on understanding detailed human experiences rather than drawing broad statistical conclusions.

Teenage Suicide Coping Study

Critical discourse analysis is a nonstatistical technique utilized by qualitative researchers to interpret and describe large amounts of relatively unfiltered data. It allows researchers to gain a detailed understanding of participant experiences without drawing broader statistical conclusions.

Critical Discourse Analysis

Qualitative and quantitative research differ significantly in their methodology and goals. Quantitative research generally starts with a focused hypothesis, gathering numerical data from large samples to draw general population conclusions using statistical techniques. In contrast, qualitative research begins with a broader, less focused research question and collects large amounts of unfiltered, nonnumerical data from a small number of individuals. Qualitative analysis relies on nonstatistical techniques to deeply understand the detailed experiences of participants rather than generating broad statistical generalizations.

Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

David Rosenhan's 1973 investigation into psychiatric wards serves as a classic example of disguised participant observation. Rosenhan and a group of 'pseudopatients' faked symptoms to be admitted to psychiatric hospitals, allowing them to covertly observe how staff interacted with and treated patients. Because the researchers concealed their true identities, the staff and actual patients behaved naturally around them.

Example of Disguised Participant Observation: Rosenhan's Pseudopatient Study

Per Lindqvist and colleagues' study on how families cope with the suicide of a teenager serves as a prime example of the strengths of qualitative research. By conducting unstructured interviews and listening to families discuss their lived experiences, the researchers were able to generate novel hypotheses—such as a potential relationship between the unexpectedness of the suicide and the family's need to understand why it occurred. Additionally, the qualitative approach revealed rich, unexpected details, such as families spontaneously showing interviewers the victim's bedroom, highlighting the importance of physical locations in the grieving process—a nuance that a structured quantitative study would likely have missed.

Example of Qualitative Research: Coping with Teenage Suicide

The relative weaknesses of quantitative methodology are often the primary strengths of qualitative research. Qualitative approaches excel at generating novel and interesting research questions and formulating new hypotheses that might otherwise be overlooked. Furthermore, qualitative research is particularly strong in providing thick, detailed descriptions of human behavior as it occurs in real-world contexts and successfully capturing the subjective, lived experiences of specific individuals and groups.

Strengths of Qualitative Research

Grounded theory is a qualitative data analysis approach where researchers develop a theory or interpretation that is fundamentally 'grounded in' the collected data. Unlike quantitative research—which typically starts with a predefined theory to derive and test a specific hypothesis—grounded theory begins with the data itself. The analysis progresses through systematic stages: researchers first identify repeating ideas within the data, organize these ideas into a smaller number of broader themes, and ultimately construct a theoretical narrative to interpret their findings.

Grounded Theory

Survey research is a flexible methodology that incorporates both quantitative and qualitative approaches, defined by two primary characteristics. First, it relies on self-report measures, where researchers ask participants to directly report on their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors using tools like questionnaires or interviews. Second, it emphasizes rigorous sampling techniques, typically favoring large random samples to acquire accurate estimates of population characteristics. This makes survey research one of the few approaches in psychology that routinely relies on random sampling.

Characteristics of Survey Research

Which of the following best describes the type of data primarily collected by qualitative researchers?

Qualitative research is a methodological approach that originated in anthropology and sociology but is now widely applied in psychology. Rather than using numerical statistics to draw general population conclusions, qualitative researchers begin with a less focused research question to deeply understand the detailed experiences of their participants. They collect large amounts of unfiltered, nonnumerical data from a relatively small number of individuals and analyze it using techniques such as grounded theory, thematic analysis, critical discourse analysis, or interpretative phenomenological analysis.

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University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

There are two types of research methods: 

- Quantitative research
- Qualitative research

Both quantitative and qualitative types of research are required and often complement each other.  Science became more dependent on quantitative data and conduct quantitative tests and use qualitatively described relations.


Research methods in Data Science: Qualitative & Quantitative

Research methods are the techniques and strategies used while collecting or analyzing data.

Research Methods

The empirical method is a way of gaining knowledge based on observation and experimentation, rather than on logical argument or authority alone. Knowledge acquired through this method is considered empirical because it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be consistently observed and verified by anyone. This focus on observable and repeatable evidence is a fundamental principle of scientific inquiry.

Empirical Method

H. Russell Bernard (March 2, 2012)

*Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Edition 2* 

Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Edition 2

https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/psychmethods4e/

KPU Research Methods in Psychology - 4th American Edition

Both data and analysis can be either qualitative or quantitative, meaning that there are four possible types of data and analysis combinations as follows: 

-  Quantitative analysis of quantitative data
-  Quantitative analysis of qualitative data
-  Qualitative analysis of quantitative data
-  Qualitative analysis of qualitative data

Four Possible Combinations of Qualitative-Quantitat ive Data and Analysis

Qualitative Research

Quantitative research is an empirical methodology wherein researchers start with a specific research question, collect numerical data from a sizable sample of participants, and analyze it using statistical techniques. As the most widely used approach in psychology, its primary objective is to deduce generalizable conclusions about a larger population.

Quantitative Research

https://online.stat.psu.edu/stat200/lesson/1/1.1/1.1.1

Categorical vs. Quantitative Data

Qualitative research in the field of food science strives to understand consumer behavior and motivation. Often, these methods are used to develop a hypothesis, which can be tested through quantitative research. Traditionally, qualitative methods can provide excellent insight to consumer behavior, but the data collected can be difficult to organize and interpret. Focus groups are the most common qualitative research tool applied to understand consumer behavior and identify possible areas of focus for product development.

The Use of Qualitative Research Methods in Data Science

UX research methods can be used to generate insights about users’ behaviors, motivations, attitudes, and needs. You can use different UX research methods to assess pain points and highlight opportunities to improve the user experience of a product.

UX Research Methods

The process of collecting information related to the research questions.

Data Collection Methods

The process of determining significance within collected information.

Data Analysis and Interpretation Methods

- Usually drawn from qualitative methods
  - Often adapted to utilize the strengths and perspectives of group members
- Indivdual roles may become group roles
  - Data Collection
- It is a dialogue 

Research Methods in Collaborative Groups

To understand, describe, and explain behavior and its underlying cognitive and biological processes, psychologists utilize a diverse range of research methods. These approaches span a spectrum from passive observational techniques to interactive methods involving direct engagement with study participants. The interactive methods themselves vary in complexity, from straightforward questioning in surveys and in-depth interviews to rigorously controlled experiments.

Research Methods in Psychology

A field study is a type of research conducted in a real-world, natural environment rather than an artificial laboratory. Because they take place in natural settings, field studies often exhibit higher external validity, allowing researchers to more effectively generalize their findings to the real world.

Field Study

The scientific process is driven by two inseparable forms of reasoning: deductive and inductive. While different research approaches may emphasize one over the other, both are essential components of the cycle of scientific inquiry. Deductive reasoning involves testing existing ideas against real-world evidence, whereas inductive reasoning uses real-world observations to generate new ideas.

The Types of Reasoning Within the Scientific Process

Facts are defined as observable realities. In the scientific community, facts are established exclusively through the collection of evidence from empirical research.

Fact

While we can sometimes determine the reason for a behavior by directly asking the individual, this approach is not always effective. People may be uncomfortable, unwilling to answer honestly, or completely incapable of responding (such as infants). In these situations, psychologists must employ creative methods to accurately understand the underlying causes of the observed behavior.

Need for Creative Methods in Studying Behavior

A researcher is investigating the claim that daily meditation reduces stress. Which of the following approaches for gathering knowledge is based on objective, tangible evidence that can be consistently observed and verified?

A life coach claims that their new motivational technique dramatically increases productivity, citing several powerful testimonials from clients who feel more successful. A researcher investigates the same technique by randomly assigning participants to either use the technique or a placebo activity, and then measures their output on a standardized task. Why is the researcher's method a more reliable way to gain knowledge about the technique's effectiveness?

Psychological science is considered an empirical field because its conclusions are founded on measurable data. This principle requires that phenomena under investigation must be quantifiable. For instance, while the internal state of an animal, such as a bird's happiness, cannot be directly measured, the internal states of humans can be assessed through methods like self-report, which provides a form of measurable data for scientific inquiry.

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