The prevalence of PTSD is notably higher in certain populations. These include individuals exposed to mass trauma events and people in occupations with frequent duty-related trauma exposure, such as police officers, firefighters, emergency medical personnel, and corrections officers. Incarcerated individuals also show significantly elevated rates of PTSD.

High-Risk Populations for PTSD

The specific nature of a traumatic event is a strong predictor of whether an individual will develop PTSD. Traumas that involve interpersonal harm, such as combat, rape, or sexual molestation, are associated with a greater risk of developing the disorder compared to other types of traumas like natural disasters.

Trauma Type as a PTSD Risk Factor

Certain personality characteristics can elevate an individual's risk of developing PTSD following a trauma. Specifically, traits such as neuroticism and somatization—the tendency to experience stress in the form of physical symptoms—have been identified as significant risk factors.

Personality-Related Risk Factors for PTSD

Biological factors, particularly genetics, can influence an individual's susceptibility to PTSD. Research has shown that people with one or two short versions of a specific gene that regulates the neurotransmitter serotonin are at a significantly higher risk of developing PTSD after experiencing trauma in childhood or adulthood.

Genetic Predisposition for PTSD

The development of PTSD can be explained by a diathesis-stress model, which posits that the disorder results from an interaction between pre-existing vulnerabilities and external stressors. This means that an individual's psychosocial and biological predispositions combine with the experience of a traumatic event to influence whether PTSD develops.

Diathesis-Stress Model of PTSD

Following a traumatic event, the presence of social support can significantly decrease the chances of developing PTSD. Social support, defined as the comfort, advice, and help from friends, family, and neighbors, aids coping by offering a safe outlet for expressing feelings and reinforcing a sense of being valued and cared for.

Social Support's Role in Mitigating PTSD

After a major earthquake, three survivors who experienced similar levels of exposure to the event are evaluated. Based on the profiles below, which individual has the highest likelihood of developing a severe stress-related disorder? Justify your answer by identifying and explaining at least three distinct risk factors present in their profile.

Analyzing PTSD Risk Profiles

The likelihood of developing PTSD after a traumatic event is influenced by a wide range of factors. These include the nature and severity of the trauma itself, the level of social support available immediately after the event, and subsequent life stressors. Individual characteristics also play a significant role, such as being female, having a lower socioeconomic status, lower intelligence, and a personal or family history of mental disorders. A history of childhood adversity, like abuse or other traumas, is another major predictor.

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Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychological disorder that can develop in individuals who have experienced or witnessed extremely stressful or traumatic events. Such events include, but are not limited to, combat, natural disasters, crimes, and sexual traumas, and can affect anyone regardless of background.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Risk Factors for PTSD

It has been found that over 90% of people with PTSD have at least one-lifetime comorbid mental disorder. The most common comorbid disorders include substance abuse disorder, major depressive disorder, and anxiety disorders. There has been increasing evidence that borderline personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder are associated with PTSD.

Comorbidity of PTSD and Other Disorders

•Cognitive Therapy: Used to recognize patterns of thinking that are keeping one stuck

•Exposure Therapy: Helps one to face situations and triggers that set one off so as to learn to better cope with them

•EDMR(eye movement desensitization and reprocessing): combines guided eye movements and exposure therapy to help process traumtic events and better respond to them

•Antidepressants

•Anti-anxiety medications

•Prazosin: Could be used to help with nightmares; should speak with a doctor to see if this medication could be effective for you


PTSD Treatment

In earlier editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was categorized as an anxiety disorder. However, with the release of DSM-5, its classification was updated, and it is now formally listed within the category of Trauma-and-Stressor-Related Disorders.

Classification of PTSD in the DSM

According to the DSM-5, a formal diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) requires that an individual has been exposed to, witnessed, or experienced the details of a traumatic event. This qualifying event must involve actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence. Examples of such experiences include combat, physical attacks, sexual assault, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and automobile accidents.

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criterion for PTSD: Trauma Exposure

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is unique among the disorders listed in the DSM because its diagnostic criteria explicitly specify a cause. The required criterion of exposure to an extreme traumatic event makes it the only disorder for which the etiology is a formal part of the diagnosis itself.

Explicit Cause in PTSD Diagnosis

According to the DSM-5, a formal diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) requires that the characteristic symptoms persist for a minimum of one month.

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criterion for PTSD: Symptom Duration

The symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) encompass a range of psychological and physiological reactions. These include re-experiencing the trauma through intrusive, distressing memories and flashbacks. Individuals may also actively avoid stimuli associated with the event. Emotionally, they often experience persistent negative states such as fear, anger, guilt, and shame, along with feelings of detachment from others. Behavioral symptoms can include irritability and a tendency toward outbursts. A key physiological symptom is an exaggerated startle response, often described as 'jumpiness'.

Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

According to the National Comorbidity Survey, approximately 7% of adults in the United States experience Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) during their lifetime.

Prevalence of PTSD in the United States

Learning models for PTSD propose that classical conditioning is a key mechanism in both the development and maintenance of symptoms. In this framework, the traumatic experience itself functions as an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned response of intense fear. Cues from the environment, as well as cognitive, emotional, and physiological states associated with the trauma, become conditioned stimuli. When an individual later encounters these cues, which act as traumatic reminders, they trigger a conditioned response of fear and anxiety, similar to the reaction during the original event.

Classical Conditioning as a Learning Model for PTSD

The cognitive model of PTSD, proposed by Ehlers and Clark (2000), posits that cognitive factors are central to how the disorder develops and persists. This theory identifies two critical processes: disturbances in how memories of the traumatic event are processed and stored, and the negative interpretations an individual makes about the trauma and its consequences.

Cognitive Model of PTSD

Analyze the following scenario and identify the psychological disorder that best explains the individual's behavior. Justify your answer by connecting specific behaviors from the scenario to the core symptoms of the disorder.

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